Astrofísica para Todos

A astrobiologia é uma área recente de pesquisa científica, que procura entender o fenômeno da vida em nosso universo, não se restringindo apenas à vida na terra, ou mesmo à vida como a conhecemos. Ela aborda algumas das questões mais complexas sobre os sistemas biológicos, como sua origem, evolução, distribuição e futuro na terra e possivelmente em outros planetas e luas.

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Índice:

Capítulo 1 Astrobiologia: Estudando a vida no Universo

Capítulo 2 A origem dos elementos

Capítulo 3 Astroquímica: A formação, a destruição e a busca de moléculas prebióticas no espaço

Capítulo 4 Planetas habitáveis: Onde estão os ligares no Universo adequados ao nosso ou outros tipos de vida?

Capítulo 5 Química prebiótica: A química da origem da vida

Capítulo 6 Origem da vida: Estudando a vida no Universo

Capítulo 7 A evolução da vida em um planeta em constante mudança

Capítulo 8 Vida ao extremo: A magnifica versatilidade da vida microbiana em ambientes extremos da Terra

Capítulo 9 Metabolismos pouco convencionais

Capítulo 10 Quando os animais herdaram o planeta

Capítulo 11 Busca de vida fora da Terra: Estudando o Sistema Solar

Capítulo 12 Luas geladas do Sistema Solar

Capítulo 13 Busca de vida além do Sistema Solar

Capítulo 14 O seti e o tamanho do palheiro: Otimismo e pessimismo na busca de nosso alter ego extraterrestre

Capítulo 15 Futuro da vida na Terra e no Universo

Capítulo 16 Exploração interestelar: Motivações, sistemas estelares, tecnologias e financiamento

Organização: Douglas Galante, Evandro P. Silva, Fabio Rodrigues, Jorge E. Horvath, Marci G. B. Avellar

This is the motto of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) Office for Astronomy Outreach. If “All” is a very vast term to define society and its communities, “Astronomy” as a  body of knowledge is also similarly vast. This project, “Big Ideas in Astronomy”, explores the issue: “What should science-educated citizens know about astronomy?”

As a result of several discussions, meetings, workshops, presentations, telecoms and text interactions in this document we propose a  set of Big Ideas in Astronomy, a Roadmap to Astronomy Literacy Goals. This document establishes the “Big Ideas” and supporting concepts that all citizens on our planet should know about astronomy.

Big Ideas in Astronomy builds on the pioneering American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) Project 2061. The AAAS Project 2061 started in 1986, the year Halley’s Comet passed near Earth. The AAAS was intrigued by what affects children’s connection to the natural world — who were starting school then will see the return of the Comet. What scientific and technological changes will they also see in their lifetime? How can education prepare them to make sense of how the world works; to think critically and independently; and to lead interesting, responsible, and productive lives in a culture increasingly shaped by science and technology? Big Ideas in Astronomy also expands on the work developed by other scientific disciplines and projects, namely: Climate Science Literacy, Earth Science Literacy Principles, Ocean Literacy and Big Ideas of Science.

Big Ideas in Astronomy presents eleven Big Ideas and expands on them through sub-ideas and additional information. This document is designed with educators and astronomers in mind, it is a guiding document to decide which topics they should address in their teaching, training sessions, outreach activities or resources development. However, this needs to be a dynamic document, and we welcome comments and remarks from the astronomy community, the astronomy education community and the science education community.

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Summary:

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences in human history

Astronomical phenomena can be experienced in our daily lives

The night sky is rich and dynamic

Astronomy is a science that studies celestial objects and phenomena in the Universe

Astronomy benefits from stimulates technology development

Cosmology is the science of exploring the Universe as a whole

We all live on a small planet within the Solar System

We are all made of stardust

There are hundreds of billion of galaxies in the Universe

We may not be alone in the Universe

We must preseve Earth, our only home in the Universe

Authors: João Retrê, Pedro Russo, Hyunju Lee, Eduardo Penteado, Saeed Salimpour, Michael Fitzgerald, Jaya Ramchandani, Markus Pôssel, Cecilia Scorza, Lars Lindberg Christensen, Erik Arends, Stephen Pompea, Wouter Schrier

Quem nunca olhou para o céu numa noite escura e limpa e não parou para admirar as estrelas? Quem nunca se perguntou: “Como elas existem? Porque brilham? Do que elas são feitas?” As próprias estrelas, tão pequeninas no firmamento, nos mostram quão minúsculos nós somos. Ao mesmo tempo, no seu esplendor, nos revelam a grandeza do Universo onde vivemos.

Do início do tempo e do espaço, na criação do Universo, ao fim de tudo dentro de um buraco negro, você experimentará um momento de conhecimentos. Entenderá como as estrelas nascem, vivem e morrem, culminando na formação de um buraco negro.

Em texto de fácil compreensão, você verá como Deus é grande e poderoso, Criador de um Universo rico e belo. A Grandeza do Universo não só revela um Deus sábio e soberano, mas imenso e poderoso.

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Sumário

Os Números

A Origem de Tudo

A Evolução das Estrelas

O Nascimento de Nosso Sistema SOlar

A Morte das Estrelas

O Buraco Negro

As Ilhas do Universo

 

Autor: Davi Weigert

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Sumário

Capítulo 1:

Revolução Agrícola

A Caminho dos Cosmos Geocêntrico

Interrupção Científica

Entra em Cena o Heliocentrismo

A Grande Síntese

Uma Breve História do Universo

Capítulo 2:

Apenas um Lugar, de Muitos

Conexão Sol-Terra

Conexão Terra-Lua

A Ameaça Que Vem do Espaço

Uma Coleção de Planetas

Capítulo 3:

Observadores no Terceiro Planeta

Mensagens Siderais

Luz Invisível

Adaptação à Atmosfera

 

Autor: Salvador Nogueira

 

O ano de 2009 foi nomeado o Ano Internacional da Astronomia pela ONU para comemorar os 400 anos desde que Galileu Galilei apontou sua luneta para o céu e fez descobertas surpreendentes. Entre elas estão quatro luas de Júpiter, as fases de Vênus, as manchas solares, os anéis de Saturno e a descoberta de que a Via Láctea é composta de estrelas. A forma como vemos o universo nunca mais seria a mesma. A luneta passou a ter aperfeiçoamentos importantes, incorporando inovações na óptica, na mecânica e na forma de se analisar a luz por ela captada. A luneta transformou-se em telescópio. No século XX, esses instrumentos foram colocados em órbita terrestre, onde estão livres dos efeitos da atmosfera. Ao mesmo tempo novas faixas do espectro eletromagnético foram desbravadas, permitindo que o universo fosse observado por novas janelas e criando novas disciplinas, como a radioastronomia, a astronomia de raios X, raios gama, ultravioleta e infravermelho.

No Brasil, as pesquisas em Astronomia têm experimentado um dinamismo crescente. Praticamente sem nenhuma produção até a década de 1960, o Brasil passou a ser um ator relevante no cenário internacional a partir dos anos 1990. A criação dos programas de pós-graduação e do Laboratório Nacional de Astrofísica tiveram papel central nesse desenvolvimento. Graças à maturidade assim atingida, o Brasil passou a ser sócio de grandes projetos internacionais como o Gemini e o SOAR. Novos passos estão sendo planejados para que o país continue a ser ator nessa grande aventura de desvendar os mistérios do universo.

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Sumário

Cap. 1 – O Universo é um laboratório de Física
Cap. 2 – Sistemas planetários
Cap. 3 – Exoplanetas e procura de vida fora da Terra
Cap. 4 – Estrelas variáveis e o Universo transiente
Cap. 5 – Populações estelares
Cap. 6 – Galáxias e seus núcleos energéticos
Cap. 7 – Estruturas em grande escala do Universo
Cap. 8 – Universo, evolução e vida
Cap. 9 – Astronomia no Brasil

 

Editores: Augusto Damineli e João Steiner

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Este é um livro sobre estrelas: como nascem, vivem e morrem. E, especialmente, como fabricam os elementos químicos que muito tempo depois vão se aglutinar para formar estruturas, como as pedras, árvores e nós mesmos.
Mas este não é apenas um livro sobre estrelas. Ele começa com um passeio pela Astronomia, pelos elementos químicos, e logo mergulha na evolução do Universo, desde o Big Bang até a formação da nossa Galáxia e de outras galáxias, nebulosas e do Sistema Solar. Fala dos modelos “pensados” do Universo, aqueles que foram propostos basicamente a partir da imaginação fértil de seus autores, como Wright e Kant, sem o auxílio dos instrumentos que seriam desenvolvidos depois.
Na segunda parte, mais detalhada, o livro introduz conceitos básicos, como a contração gravitacional, responsável pela existência das estrelas, a natureza da luz, os espectros e as propriedades físicas das estrelas. Para isso, discute a teoria quântica e suas aplicações na interpretação da luz das estrelas, concluindo com os processos básicos da Astrofísica Nuclear, que estão na origem da energia das estrelas e da sua composição química.
As duas últimas partes aproveitam os conceitos introduzidos nas seções iniciais e contêm o núcleo da estrutura e da evolução das estrelas. Os ciclos de queima nuclear são então descritos de maneira mais detalhada, e o leitor pode compreender como são formados os principais elementos químicos na nucleossíntese estelar quiescente e explosiva. O uso do diagrama HR torna bastante simples a compreensão das trajetórias evolutivas, particularmente após a sequência principal. As principais possibilidades de remanescentes estelares são mencionadas na parte final, incluindo as anãs brancas, as estrelas de nêutrons e os buracos negros.
Escrito em uma linguagem objetiva, o livro pode ser usado por leitores sem qualquer formação em Física ou Matemática. Para os mais corajosos, há uma série de anexos com desenvolvimentos mais detalhados de alguns dos temas tratados.

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Sumário

1. Apresentação 
   ELEMENTOS QUÍMICOS
   MASSA NÃO É PESO
O começo de tudo
   TÃO LONGE, TÃO GRANDE 
A Galáxia
As galáxias
Berçários de estrelas
Nosso minúsculo lugar no Universo
O tamanho do pensamento
2. Eu queria saber, mas nem sabia o que queria perguntar
2.1 – Meu primeiro livro de “astronomês”
O Sol como unidade de medida de outros corpos celestes
A Terra é mais densa que o Sol
Contração Gravitacional
Faz-se a luz
O céu poderia ser diferente
O espectro do Sol
Usando cor como “termômetro”
2.2 – Grandes ideias para pequenos mundos
Luz enquanto quantum
Quantizar é preciso
Ondas estranhas

Uma certa incerteza e a matéria degenerada
O que é a queima nuclear?
Núcleos, nuclídeos
Nuclídeos
Nucleossíntese e relógios
Relógios da natureza
3. Uma pequena biografia das estrelas
3.1 – Os números das estrelas 
Massas
Tempos de Vida
Dimensões
Temperaturas
Luminosidades
Classes de Luminosidade
3.2 – Ciclos de queima
Queima do hidrogênio no centro da estrela
Fim da queima do hidrogênio no centro da estrela
Queima do hélio no centro da estrela
Queima do carbono, oxigênio, etc., no centro da estrela
3.3 – A história propriamente dita
Um retrato que conta histórias
Diagrama Hertzsprung-Russell e os Ciclos de queima

4. Morte e Renascimento
Após a morte estelar há quatro possibilidades
Não sobra nada
Anã Branca
Estrela de Nêutrons
Buraco Negro
Outros buracos negros não estelares

Da poeira das estrelas

 

Autor: Lilia Irmeli Arany-Prado

O céu intriga o homem desde a pré-história, representado em pinturas anteriores à escrita e em mitos sobre deuses e heróis. Não tardou até que começássemos a tentar entendê-lo.

A astronomia nasceu de observações ainda a olho nu e de hipóteses que nem sempre se mostraram verdadeiras. Da Mesopotâmia à América, os primeiros estudos do céu tiveram impacto em diversos aspectos de cada cultura, desde a religião até a divisão e a organização do tempo.

Ainda hoje, a astronomia continua a nos desafiar. Agora com técnicas e equipamentos mais precisos e sensíveis, podemos descobrir cada vez mais sobre o funcionamento da máquina do Universo – mas sempre encontrando novas perguntas que mantêm nossos olhares voltados para o alto.

O céu que nos envolve apresenta a astronomia de acordo com o conhecimento presente e de forma bastante acessível. Assim, este livro busca responder algumas perguntas de quem já se encantou pelo céu e despertar o interesse dos que ainda não mergulharam em seus mistérios. Os capítulos, escritos por astrônomos com vasta experiência em pesquisa, ensino e divulgação, estão organizados para atender a interesses específicos, aprofundando cada tema de forma particularizada. No entanto, este livro também pode ser lido como uma jornada. Partimos do modo como nos relacionamentos com a astronomia – desde o que ela representou e o que representa ao homem até os modos como observamos e estudamos o céu. Caminhamos por suas implicações para nosso planeta e para o Sistema Solar, com a combinação de fúria e harmonia essencial para sua formação e seu funcionamento. Viajamos em direção às estrelas e às galáxias, até lançarmos nosso olhar ao Universo – sua história, sua composição e a Teoria do Big Bang, com seu embasamento teórico e observacional. E encerramos o percurso voltando a uma questão essencial: a vida, e como ela poderia se manifestar no Universo.

Com finalidade educativa, O céu que nos envolve é complementado por um Manual do Educador que inclui informações e sugestões para seu uso em ambiente escolar. O objetivo desse material é levar um pouco do Universo aos estudantes brasileiros, integrando um trabalho que vem sendo realizado no Departamento de Astronomia do Instituto de Astronomia, Geofísica e Ciências Atmosféricas da USP há algumas décadas.

Nossa produção voltada a atividades de educação e divulgação inclui livros, apostilas, artigos em revistas e painéis. Dois livros elaborados por pesquisadores do Departamento de Astronomia foram agraciados com o prêmio Jabuti: em 2000, Introdução à estrutura e evolução estelar.

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Sumário

Cap. 1 – Uma pré-história do céu 12
Cap. 2 – Instrumentos e técnicas astronômicas 27
Cap. 3 – Movimento aparente do céu 55
Cap. 4 – A Terra 79
Cap. 5 – Sistemas planetários 99
Cap. 6 – Sol 153
Cap. 7 – Estrelas 176
Cap. 8 – A Via Láctea 200
Cap. 9 – Galáxias 229
Cap. 10 – Cosmologia 256
Cap. 11 – À procura de vida fora da Terra 277

 

Autores: Augusto Damineli, Eder Cassola Molina, Enos Picazzio, Gastão B. Lima Neto, Jane Gregorio-Hetem, Roberto D. Dias da Costa, Ulisses Capozzoli, Vera Jatenco-Pereira, Walter Junqueira Maciel

Nesta edição especial do Caderno Brasileiro de Ensino de Física comemoramos o Ano Internacional da Astronomia. Nela, divulgamos um conjunto de palestras que organizamos na UFSC, durante todo o ano de 2009. Elas foram realizadas com casa cheia – o auditório da reitoria – com gente muito animada dos dois lados. Foi um prazer organizá-las, assisti-las e ver as pessoas participarem e se deleitarem com a divagação astronômica.
Depois de muito esforço, conseguimos reunir os artigos dos palestrantes e transformá-los nesta edição especial. Esperamos que eles ajudem a todos a refletir um pouco mais sobre os fascinantes tópicos expostos de forma simples e ao mesmo tempo abrangente pelos nossos palestrantes.

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Sumário

Procura de vida fora da terra – Augusto Damineli Neto

Arqueologia Cósmica com radiação cósmica de fundo em microondas – Carlos Alexandre Wuensche de Souza, Thyrso Villela, Camilo Tello, Ivan Soares Ferreira

Por que as estrelas são importantes para nós? – Grazyna Stasinska

Astrobiologia: água e vida no sistema solar e além – Jorge Alberto Wuillfeldt

O Universo – Kepler de Souza Oliveira Filho

Buracos Negros: sementes ou cemitérios de faláxias? – João E. Steiner

O lado escuro do Universo – Laerte Sodré Jr.

 

Departamento de Física – UFSC

Cadernos de Astronomia é uma publicação do Núcleo de Astrofísica e Cosmologia da UFES, Cosmo-ufes, e do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Astrofísica, Cosmologia e Gravitação, PPGCosmo, que visa veicular textos científicos, de ensino, de divulgação científica e resenhas sobre assuntos de relevância e atualidade, focados em Astronomia, Astrofísica, Cosmologia e áreas correlatas. Os artigos publicados nos Cadernos de Astronomia são destinados a um amplo público, e podem ser submetidos a revista não apenas por profissionais trabalhando na área de ensino e/ou pesquisa, mas também por qualquer interessado nos assuntos listados anteriormente.

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Sumário

Seção Temática – Universo em Expansão: Centenário do Modelo Cosmológico de Friedmann

Friedmann e a descoberta da expansão do universo –  Ioav Waga

Notas para uma história da cosmologia entre as décadas de 1910 e 1930 – Antonio Augusto Passos Videira e Cássio Leite Vieira

Alexandre Friedmann e o universo em expansão – Vladimir Mostepanenko

Supernovas do tipo Ia e a expansão do Universo – Ribamar R. R. Reis e Beatriz B. Siffert

J-PAS: o consórcio astronômico hispano-brasileiro – Cassio Pigozzo

A cosmologia de 21 cm e o radiotelescópio BINGO – Carlos Alexandre Wuensche

Divulgação Científica, Ciência & Sociedade

Como astrônomos estudam o mistério da morte das galáxias – Thiago Signorini Gonçalves

O modelo atômico de Bohr e o início da mecânica quântica – Alan M. Velasquez-Toribio

As Astrocientistas e o paradoxo da desigualdade de gênero na física – Carla R. Almeida, Paola C. M. Delgado e Tays Miranda

Artigos

On the mode structure of imperfect fluids – Winfried Zimdahl

Ensino

Uma proposta de introdução à astrofotografia – Leopoldo Gorges Neto et al.

Uma proposta de atividade didática sobre a medição do raio da Terra baseada no método empregado por Eratóstenes – Thiago Costa Caetano e Camila Cardoso Moreira

Ensinar e aprender ciência: projetos interdisciplinares – Lucas Antonio Xavier et al.

MAES2021 – Trabalhos Premiados

IV Mostra de Astronomia do Espírito Santo – Comitê Organizador da MAES 2021

Plutão e as descobertas da sonda New Horizons – Ágata Mayra de Souza Batista et al.

Textos Clássicos

O universo dinâmico de Friedmann – Hermano Velten e Winfried Zundahl

Notas

A vida é um milagre em ação – Vladimir N. Lukash

 

Editores Responsáveis: Prof. Dr. Alan M. Velasquez Toribio, Prof. Dr. Felipe Tovar Falciano, Prof. Dr. Hermano Velten, Prof. Dr. Júlio C. Fabris e Prof. Dr. Júnior Diniz Toniato

 

Durante muito tempo a Astronomia se ocupou primariamente da medida da posição dos astros e da compreensão de seus movimentos. Este tipo de trabalho desempenhou um papel importante na história da humanidade, propiciando o desenvolvimento de ferramentas de orientação úteis (por exemplo, nas grandes navegações) e contagem do tempo, tarefa que até pouco tempo era de responsabilidade exclusiva de observatórios astronômicos. A compreensão da natureza física dos astros, contudo, requer medidas mais detalhadas de suas propriedades do que sua posição no céu. Hoje em dia, ao apontar um telescópio para uma estrela, astrônomos podem inferir sua temperatura, luminosidade, composição química, massa, estrutura interna, idade, campo magnético, taxa de rotação, se ela possui planetas a seu redor, etc.. Observando galáxias, podemos descobrir que tipos de estrelas vivem nela, quando ela se formou, quanto gás ela contém, a temperatura e geometria desse gás, como estrelas e gás se movimentam dentro da galáxia, como está distribuída a matéria, com que velocidade a galáxia se afasta de nós, se ela possui um buraco negro super massivo em seu núcleo, etc.. A Astrofísica é a ciência que coleta e analisa toda esta informação, com o objetivo nada modesto de entender como nascem, vivem e morrem estrelas, galáxias e demais peças desse quebra cabeça cósmico que é o universo.
Os objetivos deste texto são (1) apresentar alguns dos tipos de medidas realizadas corriqueiramente em observatórios astronômicos e (2) descrever como essas medidas se relacionam com propriedades fundamentais dos astros – uma espécie de “be-à-bá” da Astrofísica moderna. Ao percorrer esse caminho “dos dados à interpretação”, vamos nos deparar com vários tipos de objetos astronômicos, como estrelas, galáxias, nebulosas e planetas, tópicos que são geralmente apresentados de forma estanque em textos de introdução a astronomia. De fato, cada um deles mereceria um capítulo à parte – o leitor pode (e deve) aprofundar seus conhecimentos sobre objetos específicos consultando a bibliografia recomendada. Também é comum separar a discussão de técnicas de observação da teoria por trás de cada tipo de objeto. Neste texto, ao contrário, o experimental e o teórico estão deliberadamente misturados, em uma tentativa de ilustrar como dados observacionais são combinados com princípios físicos básicos para estudar diferentes tipos de astros.
O texto faz uso de conceitos de física básica equivalentes ao ciclo básico de uma graduação em Física, embora boa parte do material aqui apresentado possa ser aproveitado ou adaptado para uso no ensino médio. Especificamente, supõe-se que o leitor tenha conhecimentos básicos de Mecânica, Termodinâmica, Óptica e noções elementares de estrutura atômica. Habilidades matemáticas mínimas são suficientes; derivadas e integrais praticamente não são usadas. Não se supõe nenhum conhecimento prévio de Astronomia ou Astrofísica, porém, este texto está longe de ser uma introdução completa a esses temas. Tópicos como coordenadas e movimento celeste, eclipses, medidas de tempo e estações do ano, não são sequer mencionados. Outro tópico pouco discutido é Evolução Estelar. Embora fenômenos associados à evolução de estrelas apareçam ao longo do texto, a discussão é insuficiente para uma compreensão adequada deste que é um dos pilares da astrofísica moderna. Futuras revisões deste texto tratarão de corrigir este lapso. Como todo livro texto, esta é uma obra em perpétuo desenvolvimento…
Começamos com uma descrição geral de como funcionam telescópios e demais aparatos usados para observar o Cosmos (capítulo 1). Feito isso, nos concentramos em duas técnicas de observação, imagens (capítulo 2) e espectroscopia (capítulo 3), explorando a informação física que elas nos oferecem quando aplicadas a estrelas, galáxias, etc. O apêndice contém uma tabela de constantes úteis para a resolução dos exercícios propostos. É importante alertar o leitor que boa parte dos exercícios espalhados ao longo dessa unidade vão bem além de simples “aplicações de fórmulas”. De fato, vários tópicos específicos são abordados exclusivamente em exercícios! (Portanto, leia os exercícios, mesmo que você não pretenda resolvê-los!)

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Sumário

Capítulo 1: Telescópios, instrumentos e detectores

Capítulo 2: Imagens

2.1 Luminosidade e fluxo

2.2 Distâncias

2.3 Tamanho angular, tamanho físico e forma

2.4 Cores

Capítulo 3: Espectroscopia

3.1 Espectro contínuo, linhas de emissão e absorção: As Leis de Kirchoff

3.2 Medindo Movimento: O Efeito Doppler e suas 100 utilidades

 

Autores: Roberto Cid Fernandes Jr., Antônio Kanaan, Jean Michel S. de M. Gomes

Este livro foi escrito com o objetivo de contribuir para a divulgação da meteorítica no Brasil, oferecendo para o público leigo uma fonte em linguagem simples para entender os principais conceitos sobre o tema, além de fornecer um levantamento estatístico bastante amplo dos meteoritos já encontrados e catalogados no país.

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Sumário

1- PRINCIPAIS TIPOS DE METEORITOS
1.1- Meteoritos rochosos
1.1.1- Condritos
1.1.1.1- Condritos brasileiros
1.1.2- Acondritos
1.1.2.1- Acondritos brasileiros
1.2- Meteoritos sideritos
1.2.1- Sideritos brasileiros
1.3- Meteoritos siderólitos
1.3.1- Palasitos
1.3.2- Mesosideritos
1.3.3- Siderólitos brasileiros
2- A QUEDA DE UM METEORITO
2.1- Quedas e achados brasileiros
2.2- Tamanho dos meteoritos
3- METEORITOS NO BRASIL
3.1- Distribuição dos meteoritos brasileiros
3.2- O Brasil desconhece seus meteoritos
3.3- Principais meteoritos catalogados
3.3.1- Meteorito Bendegó
3.3.2- Meteorito Angra dos Reis
3.3.3- Meteorito Ibitira
3.3.4- Meteorito Governador Valadares
3.3.5- Meteorito Santa Catharina
3.3.6- Meteorito Vicência
3.3.7- Outros meteoritos importantes
3.4- Quedas, achados e registros recentes
3.4.1- Meteorito Buritizal
3.4.2- Meteorito Nossa Senhora do Livramento
3.4.3- Meteorito Três Irmãos
3.4.4- Meteorito Serra Pelada
3.4.5- Meteorito Hermenegildo
3.5- Lista com informações gerais
3.6- Meteoritos em exposição
4- IDENTIFICANDO METEORITOS
4.1- Crosta de fusão
4.2- Forma indefinida
4.3- Densidade
4.4- Regmaglitos
4.5- Magnetismo

4.6- O interior
4.7- Presença de ferro e níquel
4.8- Presença de côndrulos
4.9- Exceções
4.10- Meteorwrongs
4.11- Acha que encontrou um meteorito?
5- ASTEROIDES E RISCO DE IMPACTO
5.1- Objetos próximos da Terra
5.2- O evento de Tunguska e Chelyabinsk
6- CRATERAS METEORÍTICAS
6.1- Crateras meteoríticas no mundo
6.2- Crateras meteoríticas no Brasil
7- MAIS SOBRE OS METEORITOS
7.1- Onde os meteoritos tendem a cair?
7.2- Quanto vale um meteorito?
7.3- Os meteoritos são radioativos?
7.4- É legal a exportação ou importação de meteoritos?
7.5- Alguém já foi atingido ou morto por um meteorito?
7.6- Observei a passagem de um bólido. O meteorito caiu perto?
7.7- Como posso ter um meteorito?
7.8- Como caçar meteoritos?

 

Autor: Higor Martinez Oliveira

Neste artigo, procuraremos dar uma pálida ideia para o leitor do que poderia ser a Radiação Cósmica de Fundo de Micro-onda (RCFM) que, segundo o tradicional modelo do “Big Bang”, foi gerada por uma explosão primordial. Com esse objetivo, achamos muito importante apresentarmos um breve resumo histórico de como o Microcosmo, baseado no Modelo Padrão da Física das Partículas Elementares (MPPE), e o Macrocosmo, baseado no Modelo Padrão do Big Bang (MPBB), evoluíram no tempo. Além disso, na parte final do artigo analisaremos os dois processos físicos apresentados na literatura que procuram explicar a RCFM: Bariogênese e Plasma Quark-Glúon.

Clique aqui para acessar o artigo.

Autor: José Maria Filardo Bassalo

Clique aqui para acessar o livro.

 

Sumário

1 Introdução

1.1 Sistemas Astronômicos

1.2 Escalas de Tempo e Livre Caminho Médio

1.2.1 Tempo Dinâmico

1.2.2 Livre Caminho Médio

1.2.3 Tempo de Relaxação

1.3 Aproximação Contínua

2 Sistema em Equilíbrio

2.1 Teorema do Virial

2.1.1 Aplicação do teorema do virial

2.2 Perfis de Luminosidade e Massa

2.2.1 Galáxias elípticas

2.2.2 Galáxias espirais

2.3 Pares de Densidade-Potencial

2.3.1 Massa Pontual

2.3.2 Esfera homogênea

2.3.3 Pares de densidade-potencial de elípticas

2.3.4 Estrutura vertical de um disco gravitacional

2.4 Função de Distribuição

2.4.1 Teorema e equação de Liouville

2.4.2 Equação de Boltzmann-Vlasov

2.4.3 Equação de Boltzmann em alguns sistemas de coordenadas

2.5 Momentos da equação de Boltzmann

2.5.1 Equação de Jeans em alguns sistemas de coordenadas

2.5.2 Aplicação das equações de Jeans

2.5.3 Teorema do virial tensorial

2.6 Teorema de Jeans

2.6.1 Integrais de movimento

2.6.2 Teorema de Jeans

2.7 Aplicação do Teorema de Jeans

2.7.1 Sistemas esféricos

2.7.2 Inversão da função de distribuição

2.7.3 Modelos esféricos e isotrópicos

2.8 Distribuição diferencial de massa

3 Relaxação violenta

3.1 Introdução

3.2 Ergodicidade e mistura no espaço de fase

3.2.1 Função-H de Boltzmann

3.2.2 Teorema da mistura

3.2.3 Relaxação e mistura

3.3 Catástrofe gravo-térmica

3.3.1 Entropia máxima

3.3.2 Instabilidade Gravo-térmica

 

Autor: Gastão Bierrenbach Lima Neto

Clique aqui para acessar o livro.

 

Sumário

1 Breve Introdução Histórica

2 Introdução à cosmologia

2.1 Princípios básicos

2.2 Princípio antrópico

2.3 Expansão do Universo

2.3.1 Paradoxo de Olbers

2.4 História térmica do Universo primordial

2.4.1 Partículas relativísticas no Universo primordial

2.5 Radiação cosmológica de fundo em microondas (RCF ou CMB)

2.5.1 Dipolo cinemático e anisotropias da RCF (CMB)

2.5.2 Equipartição

2.5.3 Recombinação

2.5.4 Temperatura da matéria bariônica intergalática

2.5.5 Entropia da CMB

2.6 Radiação de fundo não cosmológica

2.7 Descrição geométrica do Universo

2.7.1 Redshift

2.7.2 Distâncias

2.7.3 Correção K

2.7.4 Contagem de objetos extragaláticos

2.8 Modelos de Friedmann-Lemaître

2.9 Parâmetros cosmológicos H0, ΩM , ΩΛ

2.9.1 Idade do Universo

2.9.2 Velocidade de recessão e redshift

2.9.3 Horizonte

2.10 Determinação observacional dos parâmetros cosmológicos

2.11 Inflação

2.12 Bariogênese

2.13 Nucleossíntese primordial

2.13.1 Balanço de bárions

2.14 Anisotropias da CMB

2.14.1 Efeito Sachs-Wolfe Integrado

2.14.2 Polarização da CMB

2.15 Antes do Big Bang

3 Formação de estruturas 

3.1 Instabilidade de Jeans

3.1.1 Crescimento de perturbações

3.1.2 Crescimento de perturbações: Universo em expansão

3.1.3 Crescimento de perturbações maiores que o horizonte

3.1.4 Evolução das massas de Jeans e Silk

3.1.5 Velocidades peculiares

3.2 Flutuações primordiais

3.2.1 Matéria escura: quente e fria

3.2.2 Origem das flutuações primordiais

3.3 Tipos de Flutuações

3.4 Espectro de potência de flutuações

3.4.1 Evolução do espectro de potência P(k)

3.4.2 Normalização do espectro de potência

3.4.3 Modelo de “panqueca” de Zel’dovich

3.4.4 Modelo hierárquico

3.4.5 Halos de matéria escura

3.4.6 Matéria escura fria na vizinhança solar

3.5 Oscilações acústicas de bárions (BAO)

3.6 Simulações numéricas

4 Cosmografia, “surveys” e distribuição de galáxias

4.1 Distribuição de galáxias

4.2 Super-aglomerado de galáxias

4.3 Surveys 3D – redshift como distância

4.4 Função de correlação

4.4.1 Função de correlação e espectro de potência

4.4.2 Função de correlação em duas dimensões

4.4.3 Teste de Alcock-Paczynski

4.5 Determinação de distâncias sem redshift

4.5.1 Método de Opik (1922)

4.6 Campo de velocidades peculiares – Distribuição de massa no Universo próximo

4.7 Viés de Malmquist e efeitos de seleção

5 Aglomerados de galáxias

5.1 Histórico

5.2 Formação de aglomerados ricos (cenário hierárquico)

5.3 Catálogos

5.4 Classificação

5.5 Composição (matéria escura + galáxias + plasma)

5.6 Distribuição espacial das galáxias e sub-estruturas

5.7 Gás intra-aglomerado

5.7.1 Observação em raios-X

5.7.2 Observação em rádio – efeito Sunyaev-Zel’dovich

5.8 Determinação de massa

5.8.1 Galáxias e a “massa faltante”

5.8.2 Dinâmica – Teorema do Virial

5.8.3 Medida de redshift e velocidades

5.8.4 Equilíbrio hidrodinâmico: gás emissor de raios-X

5.8.5 Lentes gravitacionais

5.8.6 Comparação entre os indicadores de massa de aglomerados

5.9 Cooling-flow/ cool-core

5.10 Fração de bárions em aglomerados e a densidade do Universo

5.11 Efeitos do Aglomerado nas galáxias e vice-versa

5.11.1 Galáxias cD

5.11.2 Luminosidade difusa intra-aglomerado

5.11.3 Segregação mosfológica

5.11.4 Sequência vermelha e efeito Butcher-Oemler

5.11.5 Perda de gás por pressão de arraste

5.11.6 Assédio (Harassment) galáctico

5.11.7 Decréscimo da taxa de formação estelar

5.11.8 Curva de rotação de espirais em aglomerados

5.11.9 Metalicidade do gás intra-aglomerado

5.12 Emissão rádio extensa e campo magnético

5.13 Relações de escala (LX, TX, σ, YX)

5.14 Colisão de aglomerados

6 Aglomerados pobres e grupos de galáxias

6.1 Grupos compactos de galáxias

6.1.1 Catálogos

6.1.2 Objetos reais ou efeitos de projeção?

6.1.3 Emissão em raios-X

6.1.4 Interação entre galáxias

6.1.5 Instabilidade em relação à fusão

7 Grupo Local

7.1 Massa e raio do Grupo Local

7.2 Membros e vizinhos do Grupo Local

7.3 Galáxias dominantes

7.4 Galáxias anãs

7.5 Galáxias ausentes

7.6 Distribuição e dinâmica

7.7 Magellanic Stream (Corrente de Magalhães)

7.8 Distribuição planar das galáxias satélites

7.9 Movimento em direção a Virgo

8 Formação de galáxias no modelo hierárquico

8.1 Modelo Top-Hat

8.2 Virialização

8.3 Resfriamento do gás

8.4 Função de Press-Schechter – função de massa

8.5 Momento angular de galáxias

8.6 Colapso monolítico X modelo hierárquico

9 Função de luminosidade

9.1 Definição da Função de Luminosidade

9.2 Determinação da FL

9.2.1 Métodos não paramétricos

9.2.2 Descrições paramétricas da função de luminosidade

9.2.3 Estimativas da função de luminosidade

9.3 Origem da função de luminosidade

10 Evolução de galáxias

10.1 Evolução dinâmica

10.1.1 Relaxação de 2-corpos

10.1.2 Relaxação violenta

10.1.3 Fricção dinâmica

10.1.4 Efeito de maré

10.1.5 Fusões de galáxias (“mergers”)

10.2 Síntese evolutiva da população estelar

10.2.1 Classificação de populações estelares

10.2.2 Evolução da população estelar

10.2.3 Função de massa Inicial (IMF)

10.2.4 Taxa de Formação Estelar (SFR)

10.2.5 Evolução química

10.5.6 Idade X Metalicidade

10.3 Observações a alto redshift

10.3.1  Redshift  fotométrico

10.3.2 Galáxias em alto redshift

10.4 Poeira

11 Núcleos ativos

11.1 Seyfert

11.2 LINERs

11.2.1 Objetos de transição

11.3 BL Lac – Blazar

11.4 Markarian

11.5 Radiação síncrotron

11.6 Rádio galáxias

11.6.1 Morfologia da emissão

11.6.2 Jato superluminar

11.7 Quasares, QAOa

11.7.1 Evolução de QSOs

11.8 Floresta Lyα

11.8.1 Sistemas Lyman-α saturados (DLA)

11.9 Variação Temporal

11.10 Modelo unificado e “zoologia” de núcleos ativos

11.10.1 “Motor central”

11.10.2 O motor central pára – BN supermaciços em galáxias “normais”

12 Reionização do Universo

12.1 Fim da ‘Idade das Trevas”

12.2 Esfera de Stromgren

13 Galáxias com surto de formação estelar : “Starburst”

14 Galáxias normais

14.1 Classificação morfológica

14.1.1 Classificação de Hubble

14.1.2 Classificação de Vaucouleurs e outros

14.2 Tipos morfológicos: características

14.2.1 Galáxias anãs e de baixo brilho superficial

14.2.2 Morfologia: dependência com a banda de observação

14.3 Classificação espectral

14.4 Bimodalidade das galáxias

A Supernovas

A.1 Classificação

A.1.1 Taxas

A.2 Hipernovas

A.3 Kilonovas

B Partículas elementares e forças

C Transparência da atmosfera

D Constantes úteis para luminosidade e magnitude

 

Autor: Gastão Bierrenbach Lima Neto

Clique aqui para acessar o artigo.

Autor: Jesse Emspak

 

Clique aqui para ler o livro. 

Summary

Our Solar System
Our Star — The Sun
Mercury
Venus

Earth
Earth’s Moon
Mars
Asteroids

Meteors and Meteorites
Moons of the Solar System
Jupiter
Galilean Moons of Jupiter

Saturn
Moons of Saturn
Uranus
Neptune

Pluto and Charon
Comets
Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud
What Is a Planet?

Autoria: NASA

This book is a gentle introduction for all those wishing to learn about modern views of the cosmos. Our universe originated in a great explosion – the big bang. For nearly a century cosmologists have studied the aftermath of this explosion: how the universe expanded and cooled down, and how galaxies were gradually assembled by gravity. The nature of the bang itself has come into focus only relatively recently. It is the subject of the theory of cosmic inflation, which was developed in the last few decades and has led to a radically new global view of the universe.

Students and other interested readers will find here a non-technical but conceptually rigorous account of modern cosmological ideas – describing what we know, and how we know it. One of the book’s central themes is the scientific quest to find answers to the ultimate cosmic questions: Is the universe finite or infinite? Has it existed forever? If not, when and how did it come into being? Will it ever end?

The book is based on the undergraduate course taught by Alex Vilenkin at Tufts University. It assumes no prior knowledge of physics or mathematics beyond elementary high school math. The necessary physics background is introduced as it is required. Each chapter includes a list of questions and exercises of varying degree of difficulty.

Clique aqui para acessar o livro.

Summary

Part I Te Big Bang and the Observable Universe
1 A Historical Overview
1.1 The Big Cosmic Questions
1.2 Origins of Scientifc Cosmology
1.3 Cosmology Today
2 Newton’s Universe
2.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion
2.2 Newtonian Gravity
2.3 Acceleration of Free Fall
2.4 Circular Motion and Planetary Orbits
2.5 Energy Conservation and Escape Velocity
2.6 Newtonian Cosmology
2.7 Olbers’ Paradox
3 Special Relativity
3.1 The Principle of Relativity
3.2 The Speed of Light and Electromagnetism
3.3 Einstein’s Postulates
3.4 Simultaneity
3.5 Time Dilation
3.6 Length Contraction
3.6.1 Speeding Muons
3.7 E = mc2
3.8 From Space and Time to Spacetime
3.9 Causality in Spacetime
4 The Fabric of Space and Time
4.1 The Astonishing Hypothesis
4.2 The Geometry of Space
4.2.1 Euclidean Geometry
4.2.2 Non-Euclidean Geometry
4.3 Curved Space
4.3.1 The Curvature of Surfaces
4.3.2 The Curvature of Three-Dimensional Space
4.4 The General Theory of Relativity
4.5 Predictions and Tests of General Relativity
4.5.1 Light Defection and Gravitational Lensing
4.5.2 Gravitational Time Dilation
4.5.3 Black Holes
4.5.4 Gravitational Waves
5 An Expanding Universe
5.1 Einstein’s Static Universe
5.2 Problems with a Static Universe
5.3 Friedmann’s Expanding Universe
6 Observational Cosmology
6.1 Fingerprints of the Elements
6.2 Measuring Velocities
6.3 Measuring Distances
6.4 The Birth of Extragalactic Astronomy
7 Hubble’s Law and the Expanding Universe
7.1 An Expanding Universe
7.2 A Beginning of the Universe?
7.3 The Steady State Theory
7.4 The Scale Factor
7.5 Cosmological Redshift
7.6 The Age of the Universe
7.7 The Hubble Distance and the Cosmic Horizon
7.8 Not Everything is Expanding
8 The Fate of the Universe
8.1 The Critical Density
8.2 The Density Parameter
9 Dark Matter and Dark Energy
9.1 The Average Mass Density of the Universe and Dark Matter
9.2 Dark Energy
9.3 The Fate of the Universe—Again
10 The Quantum World
10.1 Quantum Discreteness
10.2 Quantum Indeterminism
10.3 The Wave Function
10.4 Many Worlds Interpretation
11 The Hot Big Bang
11.1 Following the Expansion Backwards in Time
11.2 Thermal Radiation
11.3 The Hot Big Bang Model
11.4 Discovering the Primeval Fireball
11.5 Images of the Baby Universe
11.6 CMB Today and at Earlier Epochs
11.7 The Three Cosmic Eras
12 Structure Formation
12.1 Cosmic Structure
12.2 Assembling Structure
12.3 Watching Cosmic Structures Evolve
12.4 Primordial Density Fluctuations
12.5 Supermassive Black Holes and Active Galaxies
13 Element Abundances
13.1 Why Alchemists Did Not Succeed
13.2 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
13.3 Stellar Nucleosynthesis
13.4 Planetary System Formation
13.5 Life in the Universe
14 The Very Early Universe
14.1 Particle Physics and the Big Bang
14.2 The Standard Model of Particle Physics
14.2.1 The Particles
14.2.2 The Forces
14.3 Symmetry Breaking
14.4 The Early Universe Timeline
14.5 Physics Beyond the Standard Model
14.5.1 Unifying the Fundamental Forces
14.6 Vacuum Defects
14.6.1 Domain Walls
14.6.2 Cosmic Strings
14.6.3 Magnetic Monopoles
14.7 Baryogenesis
Part II Beyond the Big Bang
15 Problems with the Big Bang
15.1 The Flatness Problem: Why is the Geometry of the Universe Flat?
15.2 The Horizon Problem: Why is the Universe so Homogeneous?
15.3 The Structure Problem: What is the Origin of Small Density Fluctuations?
15.4 The Monopole Problem: Where Are They?
16 The Theory of Cosmic Infation
16.1 Solving the Flatness and Horizon Problems
16.2 Cosmic Infation
16.2.1 The False Vacuum
16.2.2 Exponential Expansion
16.3 Solving the Problems of the Big Bang
16.3.1 The Flatness Problem
16.3.2 The Horizon Problem
16.3.3 The Structure Formation Problem
16.3.4 The Monopole Problem
16.3.5 The Expansion and High Temperature of the Universe
16.4 Vacuum Decay
16.4.1 Boiling of the Vacuum
16.4.2 Graceful Exit Problem
16.4.3 Slow Roll Infation
16.5 Origin of Small Density Fluctuations
16.6 More About Infation
16.6.1 Communication in the Infating Universe
16.6.2 Energy Conservation
17 Testing Infation: Predictions and Observations
17.1 Flatness
17.2 Density Fluctuations
17.3 Gravitational Waves
17.4 Open Questions
18 Eternal Infation
18.1 Volume Growth and Decay
18.2 Random Walk of the Infaton Field
18.3 Eternal Infation via Bubble Nucleation
18.4 Bubble Spacetimes
18.5 Cosmic Clones
18.6 The Multiverse
18.7 Testing the Multiverse
18.7.1 Bubble Collisions
18.7.2 Black Holes from the Multiverse
19 String Theory and the Multiverse
19.1 What Is String Theory?
19.2 Extra Dimensions
19.3 The Energy Landscape
19.4 String Theory Multiverse
19.5 The Fate of Our Universe Revisited
20 Anthropic Selection
20.1 The Fine Tuning of the Constants of Nature
20.1.1 Neutron Mass
20.1.2 Strength of the Weak Interaction
20.1.3 Strength of Gravity
20.1.4 The Magnitude of Density Perturbations
20.2 The Cosmological Constant Problem
20.2.1 The Dynamic Quantum Vacuum
20.2.2 Fine-Tuned for Life?
20.3 The Anthropic Principle
20.4 Pros and Cons of Anthropic Explanations
21 The Principle of Mediocrity
21.1 The Bell Curve
21.2 The Principle of Mediocrity
21.3 Obtaining the Distribution by Counting Observers
21.4 Predicting the Cosmological Constant
21.4.1 Rough Estimate
21.4.2 The Distribution
21.5 The Measure Problem
21.6 The Doomsday Argument and the Future of Our Civilization
21.6.1 Large and Small Civilizations
21.6.2 Beating the Odds
22 Did the Universe Have a Beginning?
22.1 A Universe that Always Existed?
22.2 The BGV Theorem
22.2.1 Where Does This Leave Us?
22.2.2 A Proof of God?
23 Creation of Universes from Nothing
23.1 The Universe as a Quantum Fluctuation
23.2 Quantum Tunneling from “Nothing”
23.2.1 Euclidean Time
23.3 The Multiverse of Quantum Cosmology
23.4 The Meaning of “Nothing”
24 The Big Picture
24.1 The Observable Universe
24.1.1 What Do We Know?
24.1.2 Cosmic Infation
24.2 The Multiverse
24.2.1 Bubble Universes
24.2.2 Other Disconnected Spacetimes
24.2.3 Levels of the Multiverse
24.2.4 The Mathematical Multiverse and Ockham’s Razor
24.3 Answers to the “Big Questions”
24.4 Our Place in the Universe

 

Autores: Delia Perlov, Alex Vilenkin

Essential Astrophysics is a book to learn or teach from, as well as a fundamental reference volume for anyone interested in astronomy and astrophysics. It presents astrophysics from basic principles without requiring any previous study of astronomy or astrophysics. It serves as a comprehensive introductory text, which takes the student through the field of astrophysics in lecture-sized chapters of basic physical principles applied to the cosmos.

This one-semester overview will be enjoyed by undergraduate students with an interest in the physical sciences, such as astronomy, chemistry, engineering or physics, as well as by any curious student interested in learning about our celestial science. The mathematics required for understanding the text is on the level of simple algebra, for that is all that is needed to describe the fundamental principles. The text is of sufficient breadth and depth to prepare the interested student for more advanced specialized courses in the future. Astronomical examples are provided throughout the text, to reinforce the basic concepts and physics, and to demonstrate the use of the relevant formulae. In this way, the student learns to apply the fundamental equations and principles to cosmic objects and situations.

All of the examples are solved with the rough accuracy needed to portray the basic result. Astronomical and physical constants and units as well as the most fundamental equations can be found in the appendix. Essential Astrophysics goes beyond the typical textbook by including references to the seminal papers in the field, with further reference to recent applications, results, or specialized literature.

There are fifty set-aside focus elements that enhance and augment the discussion with fascinating details. They include the intriguing historical development of particular topics and provide further astrophysics equations or equations for other topics.

Clique aqui para acessar o livro.

Summary

1 Observing the Universe
1.1 What Do Astronomers and Astrophysicists Do?
1.2 Our Place on Earth
1.3 Location in the Sky
1.4 Measuring Angle and Size
1.5 The Locations of the Stars are Slowly Changing
1.6 What Time is It?
1.7 Telling Time by the Stars
1.8 Optical Telescopes Observe Visible Light
1.9 Telescopes that Detect Invisible Radiation
1.10 Units Used by Astronomers and Astrophysicists
1.11 Physical Constants

2 Radiation
2.1 Electromagnetic Waves
2.2 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
2.3 Moving Perspectives
2.4 Thermal (Blackbody) Radiation
2.5 How Far Away is the Sun, and How Bright, Big and Hot is it?
2.5.1 Distance of the Sun
2.5.2 How Big is the Sun?
2.5.3 The Unit of Energy
2.5.4 The Sun’s Luminosity
2.5.5 Taking the Sun’s Temperature
2.5.6 How Hot are the Planets?
2.6 The Energy of Light
2.7 Radiation Scattering and Transfer
2.7.1 Why is the Sky Blue and the Sunsets Red?
2.7.2 Rayleigh Scattering

2.7.3 Thomson and Compton Scattering
2.7.4 Radiation Transfer

3 Gravity
3.1 Ceaseless, Repetitive Paths Across the Sky
3.2 Universal Gravitational Attraction
3.3 Mass of the Sun
3.4 Tidal Effects
3.4.1 The Ocean Tides
3.4.2 Tidal Locking into Synchronous Rotation
3.4.3 The Days are Getting Longer
3.4.4 The Moon is Moving Away from the Earth
3.4.5 A Planet’s Differential Gravitational Attraction Accounts for Planetary Rings
3.5 What Causes Gravity?

4 Cosmic Motion
4.1 Motion Opposes Gravity
4.1.1 Everything Moves
4.1.2 Escape Speed
4.2 Orbital Motion
4.3 The Moving Stars
4.3.1 Are the Stars Moving?
4.3.2 Components of Stellar Velocity
4.3.3 Proper Motion
4.3.4 Radial Velocity
4.3.5 Observed Proper Motions of Stars
4.3.6 Motions in Star Clusters
4.3.7 Runaway Stars
4.4 Cosmic Rotation
4.4.1 Unexpected Planetary Rotation
4.4.2 The Sun’s Differential Rotation
4.4.3 Stellar Rotation and Age

5 Moving Particles
5.1 Elementary Constituents of Matter
5.2 Heat, Temperature, and Speed
5.2.1 Where Does Heat Come From?
5.2.2 Thermal Velocity
5.2.3 Collisions
5.2.4 The Distribution of Speeds
5.3 Molecules in Planetary Atmospheres

5.4 Gas Pressure
5.4.1 What Keeps Our Atmosphere Up?
5.4.2 The Ideal Gas Law
5.4.3 The Earth’s Sun-Layered Atmosphere
5.4.4 Pressure, Temperature, and Density Inside the Sun
5.5 Plasma
5.5.1 Ionized Gas
5.5.2 Plasma Oscillations and the Plasma Frequency
5.5.3 Atoms are Torn Apart into Plasma Within the Sun
5.6 Sound Waves and Magnetic Waves
5.6.1 Sound Waves
5.6.2 Magnetic Waves

6 Detecting Atoms in Stars
6.1 What is the Sun Made Out Of?
6.2 Quantization of Atomic Systems
6.3 Some Atoms are Excited Out of Their Lowest-Energy Ground State
6.4 Ionization and Element Abundance in the Sun and Other Stars
6.5 Wavelengths and Shapes of Spectral Lines
6.5.1 Radial Motion Produces a Wavelength Shift
6.5.2 Gravitational Redshift
6.5.3 Thermal Motion Broadens Spectral Lines
6.5.4 Rotation or Expansion of the Radiating Source can Broaden Spectral Lines
6.5.5 Curve of Growth
6.5.6 Magnetic Fields Split Spectral Lines

7 Transmutation of the Elements
7.1 The Electron, X-rays and Radium
7.2 Radioactivity
7.3 Tunneling Out of the Atomic Nucleus
7.4 The Electron and the Neutrino
7.5 Cosmic Rays
7.6 Nuclear Transformation by Bombardment

8 What Makes the Sun Shine?
8.1 Can Gravitational Contraction Supply the Sun’s Luminosity?
8.2 How Hot is the Center of the Sun?
8.3 Nuclear Fusion Reactions in the Sun’s Core
8.3.1 Mass Lost is Energy Gained
8.3.2 Understanding Thermonuclear Reactions

8.3.3 Hydrogen Burning
8.3.4 Why Doesn’t the Sun Blow Up?
8.4 The Mystery of Solar Neutrinos
8.4.1 The Elusive Neutrino
8.4.2 Solar Neutrino Detectors Buried Deep Underground
8.4.3 Solving the Solar Neutrino Problem
8.5 How the Energy Gets Out
8.6 The Faint-Young-Sun Paradox
8.7 The Sun’s Destiny

9 The Extended Solar Atmosphere
9.1 Hot, Volatile, Magnetized Gas
9.1.1 The Million-Degree Solar Corona
9.1.2 Varying Sunspots and Ever-Changing Magnetic Fields
9.1.3 Coronal Loops
9.1.4 What Heats the Corona?
9.1.5 Coronal Holes
9.2 The Sun’s Varying Winds
9.2.1 The Expanding Sun Envelops the Earth
9.2.2 Properties of the Solar Wind
9.2.3 Where Do the Two Solar Winds Come From?
9.2.4 Where Does the Solar Wind End?
9.3 Explosions on the Sun
9.3.1 Solar Flares
9.3.2 Coronal Mass Ejections
9.4 Space Weather
9.4.1 Earth’s Protective Magnetosphere
9.4.2 Trapped Particles
9.4.3 Earth’s Magnetic Storms
9.4.4 Solar Explosions Threaten Humans in Outer Space
9.4.5 Disrupting Communication
9.4.6 Satellites in Danger
9.4.7 Forecasting Space Weather
10 The Sun Amongst the Stars
10.1 Comparisons of the Sun with Other Stars
10.1.1 How Far Away are the Stars?
10.1.2 How Bright are the Stars?
10.1.3 How Luminous are the Stars?
10.1.4 The Temperatures of Stars
10.1.5 The Colors of Stars

10.1.6 The Spectral Sequence
10.1.7 Radius of the Stars
10.1.8 How Massive are the Stars?
10.2 Main-Sequence and Giant Stars
10.2.1 The Hertzsprung–Russell Diagram
10.2.2 The Luminosity Class
10.2.3 Life on the Main Sequence
10.2.4 The Red Giants and Supergiants
10.3 Nuclear Reactions Inside Stars
10.3.1 The Internal Constitution of Stars
10.3.2 Two Ways to Burn Hydrogen in Main-Sequence Stars
10.3.3 Helium Burning in Giant Stars
10.4 Using Star Clusters to Watch How Stars Evolve
10.5 Where did the Chemical Elements Come From?
10.5.1 Advanced Nuclear Burning Stages in Massive Supergiant Stars
10.5.2 Origin of the Material World
10.5.3 The Observed Abundance of the Elements
10.5.4 Synthesis of the Elements Inside Stars
10.5.5 Big-Bang Nucleosynthesis
10.5.6 The First and Second Generation of Stars
10.5.7 Cosmic Implications of the Origin of the Elements

11 The Material Between the Stars
11.1 Gaseous Emission Nebulae
11.2 Solid Dust Particles in Interstellar Space
11.3 Radio Emission from the Milky Way
11.4 Interstellar Hydrogen Atoms
11.5 Interstellar Molecules

12 Formation of the Stars and Their Planets
12.1 How the Solar System Came into Being
12.1.1 The Nebular Hypothesis
12.1.2 Composition of the Planets
12.1.3 Mass and Angular Momentum in the Solar System
12.2 Star Formation
12.2.1 Giant Molecular Clouds
12.2.2 Gravitational Collapse
12.2.3 Triggering Gravitational Collapse
12.2.4 Protostars
12.2.5 Losing Mass and Spin

12.3 Planet-Forming Disks and Planets Around Nearby Stars
12.3.1 The Plurality of Worlds
12.3.2 Proto-Planetary Disks
12.3.3 The First Discoveries of Exoplanets
12.3.4 Hundreds of New Worlds Circling Nearby Stars
12.3.5 Searching for Habitable Planets

13 Stellar End States
13.1 A Range of Destinies
13.2 Planetary Nebulae
13.3 Stars the Size of the Earth
13.3.1 The Discovery of White Dwarf Stars
13.3.2 Unveiling White Dwarf Stars
13.3.3 The High Mass Density of White Dwarf Stars
13.4 The Degenerate Electron Gas
13.4.1 Nuclei Pull a White Dwarf Together as Electrons Support It
13.4.2 Radius and Mass of a White Dwarf
13.5 Exploding Stars
13.5.1 Guest Stars, the Novae
13.5.2 What Makes a Nova Happen?
13.5.3 A Rare and Violent End, the Supernovae
13.5.4 Why do Supernova Explosions Occur?
13.5.5 When a Nearby Star Detonates Its Companion
13.5.6 Stars that Blow Themselves Up
13.5.7 Light of a Billion Suns, SN 1987A
13.5.8 Will the Sun Explode?
13.6 Expanding Stellar Remnants
13.7 Neutron Stars and Pulsars
13.7.1 Neutron Stars
13.7.2 Radio Pulsars from Isolated Neutron Stars
13.7.3 X-ray Pulsars from Neutron Stars in Binary Star Systems
13.8 Stellar Black Holes
13.8.1 Imagining Black Holes
13.8.2 Observing Stellar Black Holes
13.8.3 Describing Black Holes
14 A Larger, Expanding Universe
14.1 The Milky Way
14.1.1 A Fathomless Disk of Stars
14.1.2 The Sun is Not at the Center of Our Stellar System
14.1.3 The Rotating Galactic Disk

14.1.4 Whirling Coils of the Milky Way
14.1.5 A Central Super-Massive Black Hole
14.1.6 Dark Matter Envelops the Milky Way
14.2 The Discovery of Galaxies
14.3 The Galaxies are Moving Away from us and from Each Other
14.4 Galaxies Gather and Stream Together
14.4.1 Clusters of Galaxies
14.4.2 Dark Matter in Clusters of Galaxies
14.4.3 Cosmic Streams
14.4.4 Galaxy Walls and Voids
14.5 Looking Back into Time
14.6 Using Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity to Explain the Expansion

15 Origin, Evolution, and Destiny of the Observable Universe
15.1 Hotter Than Anything Else
15.2 Three Degrees Above Absolute Zero
15.2.1 An Unexpected Source of Noise
15.2.2 Blackbody Spectrum
15.2.3 As Smooth as Silk
15.2.4 Cosmic Ripples
15.3 The Beginning of the Material Universe
15.3.1 The First Three Minutes
15.3.2 Formation of the First Atoms, and the Amount of Invisible Dark Matter
15.3.3 History of the Expanding Universe
15.4 The First Stars and Galaxies
15.4.1 Pulling Primordial Material Together
15.4.2 When Stars Began to Shine
15.5 The Evolution of Galaxies
15.5.1 Active Galactic Nuclei
15.5.2 Super-Massive Black Holes
15.5.3 Gamma-Ray Bursts
15.6 Dark Energy, the Cosmological Constant, and How it All Ends
15.6.1 Discovery of Dark Energy
15.6.2 Using the Cosmological Constant to Describe Dark Energy
15.6.3 When Stars Cease to Shine

 

Autor: Kenneth R. Lang

Astrobiology research sponsored by NASA focuses on three basic questions: How does life begin and evolve? Does life exist elsewhere in the Universe? How do we search for life in the Universe? Over the past 50 years, astrobiologists have uncovered a myriad of clues to answering these Big Questions.

Since the astrobiology community published its last Astrobiology Roadmap in 2008, research in the field has focused more and more on the link between the “astro” and the “bio” in astrobiology—that is, what makes a planetary body habitable. “Habitability” has become a major buzzword in astrobiology as researchers have learned more about extraterrestrial environments in our Solar System and beyond and deepened their understanding of how and when the early Earth became habitable.

Why is Earth habitable? How, when, and why did it become habitable? Are, or were, any other bodies in our Solar System habitable? Might planets orbiting other stars be habitable? What sorts of stars are most likely to have habitable planets? These are just a few of the questions that astrobiologists are trying to answer today.

In preparing this new science strategy, hundreds of members of the astrobiology community collaborated in an intensive process of defining goals and objectives for astrobiology research moving forward. The community identified six major topics of research in the field today:

• Identifying abiotic sources of organic compounds
• Synthesis and function of macromolecules in the origin of life
• Early life and increasing complexity
• Co-evolution of life and the physical environment
• Identifying, exploring, and characterizing environments for habitability and biosignatures
• Constructing habitable worlds

This 2015 Astrobiology Strategy identifies questions to guide and inspire astrobiology research on each of these topics—in the lab, in the field, and in experiments flown on planetary science missions—over the next decade. The strategy also identifies major ongoing challenges that astrobiologists tackle as they attempt to answer these universal questions.

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Summary

1 IDENTIFYING ABIOTIC SOURCES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 
1.1 Why is This Topic Important?
1.2 What Does This Research Entail?
1.3 Progress in the Last Ten Years
1.4 Areas of Research Within Abiotic Sources of Organic Compounds
I. What Were the Sources, Activities, and Fates of Organic Compounds on the Prebiotic Earth?
II. What is the Role of the Environment in the Production of Organic Molecules?
III. What is the Role of the Environment on the Stability and Accumulation of Organic Molecules?
IV. What Constraints Can the Rock Record Place on the Environments and Abiotic Reactions of the Early Earth?
1.5 Challenges for the Next Ten Years
2 SYNTHESIS AND FUNCTION OF MACROMOLECULES IN THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
2.1 Why is This Topic Important?
2.2 What Does This Research Entail?
2.3 Progress in the Last Ten Years
2.4 Areas of Research within Synthesis and Function of Macromolecules in the Origin of Life
I. Paths to Today’s DNA/RNA/Protein-Dominated World
2.5 Challenges for the Next Ten Years
3 EARLY LIFE AND INCREASING COMPLEXITY 
3.1 Why is This Topic Important?
3.2 What Does This Research Entail?
3.3 Progress in the Last Ten Years
3.4 Areas of Research within Early Life and Increasing Complexity
I. Origin and Dynamics of Evolutionary Processes in Living Systems: Theoretical Considerations
II. Fundamental Innovations in Earliest Life
III. Genomic, Metabolic, and Ecological Attributes of Life at the Root of the Evolutionary Tree (LUCA)
IV. Dynamics of the Subsequent Evolution of Life
V. Common Attributes of Living Systems on Earth
4 CO-EVOLUTION OF LIFE AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 
4.1 Why is This Topic Important?
4.2 What Does This Research Entail?
4.3 Progress in the Last Ten Years
4.4Areas of Research Within Co-Evolution of Life and the Physical Environment
I. How Does the Story of Earth—Its Past, Present, and Future—Inform Us about How the Climates, Atmospheric Compositions, Interiors, and Biospheres of Planets Can Co-Evolve?
II. How Do the Interactions between Life and Its Local Environment Inform Our Understanding of Biological and Geochemical Co-Evolutionary Dynamics?
III. How Does Our Ignorance About Microbial Life on Earth Hinder Our Understanding of the Limits to Life?
4.5 Challenges for the Next Ten Years
5 IDENTIFYING, EXPLORING, AND CHARACTERIZING ENVIRONMENTS FOR HABITABILITY AND BIOSIGNATURES 
5.1 Why is this topic important?
5.2 What does this research entail?
5.3 Progress in the last ten years
5.4 Areas of Research within Identifying, Exploring, and Characterizing Environments for Habitability and Biosignatures
I. How Can We Assess Habitability on Different Scales?
II. How Can We Enhance the Utility of Biosignatures to Search for Life in the Solar System and Beyond?

III. How Can We Identify Habitable Environments and Search for Life within the Solar System?
IV. How Can We Identify Habitable Planets and Search for Life beyond the Solar System
Current Techniques and Strategies for Life Detection
6 CONSTRUCTING HABITABLE WORLDS 
6.1 What makes an environment habitable?
6.2 Why is this topic important?
6.3 What does this research entail?
6.4Progress in the Last Ten Years
6.5 Areas of Research within Constructing Habitable Worlds
I. What are the Fundamental Ingredients and Processes That Define a Habitable Environment?
II. What are the Exogenic Factors in the Formation of a Habitable Planet?
III. What Does Earth Tell Us about General Properties of Habitability (and What is Missing)?
IV. What Are the Processes on Other Types of Planets That Could Create Habitable Niches?
V. How Does Habitability Change Through Time?
6.6 Questions and Challenges for the Next Ten Years
7 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN ASTROBIOLOGY 
7.1 Where Are We Now?
I. What is Life?
II. How Will We Know When We Have Found Life?
III. Can We Draw the Boundary Between Prebiotic Chemistry and Life?
IV. How Can We Account for “Weird Life” That May Have Alternative Biochemistry or Alternative Habitability Constraints?
V. How Should Astrobiology Approach Perturbations to Planetary Biospheres by
Technological Civilizations on Earth and Elsewhere in the Universe?
VI. How Does Astrobiology Relate to Other Fields, and How Does It Operate in the Context of Those Other Efforts?
7.2 Confronting these Challenges Creates Additional Benefits

Editor-in-chief: Lindsay Hays

Now in its sixth edition this successful undergraduate textbook gives a well-balanced and comprehensive introduction to the topics of classical and modern astronomy. While emphasizing both the astronomical concepts and the underlying physical principles, the text provides a sound basis for more profound studies in the astronomical sciences.

The chapters on galactic and extragalactic astronomy as well as cosmology were extensively modernized in the previous edition. In this new edition they have been further revised to include more recent results. The long chapter on the solar system has been split into two parts: the first one deals with the general properties, and the other one describes individual objects. A new chapter on exoplanets has been added to the end of the book next to the chapter on astrobiology.

In response to the fact that astronomy has evolved enormously over the last few years, only a few chapters of this book have been left unmodified.

Long considered a standard text for physical science majors, Fundamental Astronomy is also an excellent reference and entrée for dedicated amateur astronomers. For their benefit the introductory chapter has been extended to give a brief summary of the different types of celestial objects.

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Summary

1 Introduction
1.1 Celestial Objects
1.2 The Role of Astronomy
1.3 Astronomical Objects of Research
1.4 The Scale of the Universe
2 Spherical Astronomy
2.1 Spherical Trigonometry
2.2 The Earth
2.3 The Celestial Sphere
2.4 The Horizontal System
2.5 The Equatorial System
2.6 Rising and Setting Times
2.7 The Ecliptic System
2.8 The Galactic Coordinates
2.9 Perturbations of Coordinates
2.10 Positional Astronomy
2.11 Constellations
2.12 Star Catalogues and Maps
2.13 Sidereal and Solar Time
2.14 Astronomical Time Systems
2.15 Calendars
2.16 Examples
2.17 Exercises
3 Observations and Instruments
3.1 Observing Through the Atmosphere
3.2 Optical Telescopes
3.3 Detectors and Instruments
3.4 Radio Telescopes
3.5 Other Wavelength Regions
3.6 Other Forms of Energy
3.7 Examples
3.8 Exercises
4 Photometric Concepts and Magnitudes 
4.1 Intensity, Flux Density and Luminosity
4.2 Apparent Magnitudes
4.3 Magnitude Systems
4.4 Absolute Magnitudes
4.5 Extinction and Optical Thickness
4.6 Examples
4.7 Exercises
5 Radiation Mechanisms
5.1 Radiation of Atoms and Molecules
5.2 The Hydrogen Atom
5.3 Line Profiles
5.4 Quantum Numbers, Selection Rules, Population Numbers
5.5 Molecular Spectra
5.6 Continuous Spectra
5.7 Blackbody Radiation
5.8 Temperatures
5.9 Other Radiation Mechanisms
5.10 Radiative Transfer
5.11 Examples
5.12 Exercises
6 Celestial Mechanics 
6.1 Equations of Motion
6.2 Solution of the Equation of Motion
6.3 Equation of the Orbit and Kepler’s First Law
6.4 Orbital Elements
6.5 Kepler’s Second and Third Law
6.6 Systems of Several Bodies
6.7 Orbit Determination
6.8 Position in the Orbit
6.9 Escape Velocity
6.10 Virial Theorem
6.11 The Jeans Limit
6.12 Examples
6.13 Exercises
7 The Solar System 
7.1 Classification of Objects
7.2 Planetary Configurations
7.3 Orbit of the Earth and Visibility of the Sun
7.4 The Orbit of the Moon
7.5 Eclipses and Occultations
7.6 The Structure and Surfaces of Planets
7.7 Atmospheres and Magnetospheres
7.8 Albedos
7.9 Photometry, Polarimetry and Spectroscopy
7.10 Thermal Radiation of the Planets
7.11 Origin of the Solar System
7.12 Nice Models
7.13 Examples
7.14 Exercises
8 Objects of the Solar System 
8.1 Mercury
8.2 Venus
8.3 The Earth and the Moon
8.4 Mars
8.5 Jupiter
8.6 Saturn
8.7 Uranus
8.8 Neptune
8.9 Dwarf Planets
8.10 Minor Bodies
8.11 Asteroids
8.12 Comets
8.13 Meteoroids
8.14 Interplanetary Dust and Other Particles
8.15 Examples
8.16 Exercises
9 Stellar Spectra 
9.1 Measuring Spectra
9.2 The Harvard Spectral Classification
9.3 The Yerkes Spectral Classification
9.4 Peculiar Spectra
9.5 The Hertzsprung–Russell Diagram
9.6 Model Atmospheres
9.7 What Do the Observations Tell Us?
9.8 Exercise
10 Binary Stars and Stellar Masses 
10.1 Visual Binaries
10.2 Astrometric Binary Stars
10.3 Spectroscopic Binaries
10.4 Photometric Binary Stars
10.5 Examples
10.6 Exercises
11 Stellar Structure
11.1 Internal Equilibrium Conditions
11.2 Physical State of the Gas
11.3 Stellar Energy Sources
11.4 Stellar Models
11.5 Examples
11.6 Exercises
12 Stellar Evolution
12.1 Evolutionary Time Scales
12.2 The Contraction of Stars Towards the Main Sequence
12.3 The Main Sequence Phase
12.4 The Giant Phase
12.5 The Final Stages of Evolution
12.6 The Evolution of Close Binary Stars
12.7 Comparison with Observations
12.8 The Origin of the Elements
12.9 Example
12.10 Exercises
13 The Sun
13.1 Internal Structure
13.2 The Atmosphere
13.3 Solar Activity
13.4 Solar Wind and Space Weather
13.5 Example
13.6 Exercises
14 Variable Stars
14.1 Classification
14.2 Pulsating Variables
14.3 Eruptive Variables
14.4 Supernovae
14.5 Examples
14.6 Exercises
15 Compact Stars
15.1 White Dwarfs
15.2 Neutron Stars
15.3 Black Holes
15.4 X-ray Binaries
15.5 Examples
15.6 Exercises
16 The Interstellar Medium
16.1 Interstellar Dust
16.2 Interstellar Gas
16.3 Interstellar Molecules
16.4 The Formation of Protostars
16.5 Planetary Nebulae
16.6 Supernova Remnants
16.7 The Hot Corona of the Milky Way
16.8 Cosmic Rays and the Interstellar Magnetic Field
16.9 Examples
16.10 Exercises
17 Star Clusters and Associations 
17.1 Associations
17.2 Open Star Clusters
17.3 Globular Star Clusters
17.4 Example
17.5 Exercises
18 The Milky Way
18.1 Methods of Distance Measurement
18.2 Stellar Statistics
18.3 The Rotation of the Milky Way
18.4 Structural Components of the Milky Way
18.5 The Formation and Evolution of the Milky Way
18.6 Examples
18.7 Exercises
19 Galaxies 
19.1 The Classification of Galaxies
19.2 Luminosities and Masses
19.3 Galactic Structures
19.4 Dynamics of Galaxies
19.5 Stellar Ages and Element Abundances in Galaxies
19.6 Systems of Galaxies
19.7 Active Galaxies and Quasars
19.8 The Origin and Evolution of Galaxies
19.9 Exercises
20 Cosmology
20.1 Cosmological Observations
20.2 The Cosmological Principle
20.3 Homogeneous and Isotropic Universes
20.4 The Friedmann Models
20.5 Cosmological Tests
20.6 History of the Universe
20.7 The Formation of Structure
20.8 The Future of the Universe
20.9 Examples
20.10 Exercises
21 Astrobiology
21.1 What Is Life?
21.2 Chemistry of Life
21.3 Prerequisites of Life
21.4 Hazards
21.5 Origin of Life
21.6 Are We Martians?
21.7 Life in the Solar System
21.8 Detecting Life
21.9 SETI—Detecting Intelligent Life
21.10 Number of Civilisations
21.11 Exercises
22 Exoplanets
22.1 Other Planetary Systems
22.2 Observational Methods
22.3 Properties of Exoplanets
22.4 Exercises

 

Editors: Hannu Karttunen, Pekka Kroger, Heikki Oja, Markku Poutanen, Karl Johan Donner

This book introduces particle physics, astrophysics and cosmology. Starting from an experimental perspective, it provides a unified view of these fields that reflects the very rapid advances being made. This new edition has a number of improvements and has been updated to include material on the Higgs particle and to describe the recently discovered gravitational waves. Astroparticle and particle physics share a common problem: we still don’t have a description of the main ingredients of the Universe from the point of view of its energy budget. Addressing these fascinating issues, and offering a balanced introduction to particle and astroparticle physics that requires only a basic understanding of quantum and classical physics, this book is a valuable resource, particularly for advanced undergraduate students and for those embarking on graduate courses. It includes exercises that offer readers practical insights. It can be used equally well as a self-study book, a reference and a textbook.

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Summary

1 Understanding the Universe: Cosmology, Astrophysics, Particles, and Their Interactions
1.1 Particle and Astroparticle Physics
1.2 Particles and Fields
1.3 The Particles of Everyday Life
1.4 The Modern View of Interactions: Quantum Fields and Feynman Diagrams
1.5 A Quick Look at the Universe
1.6 Cosmic Rays
1.7 Multimessenger Astrophysics
2 Basics of Particle Physics 
2.1 The Atom
2.2 The Rutherford Experiment
2.3 Inside the Nuclei: b Decay and the Neutrino
2.4 A Look into the Quantum World: Schrödinger’s Equation
2.4.1 Properties of Schrödinger’s Equation and of its Solutions
2.4.2 Uncertainty and the Scale of Measurements
2.5 The Description of Scattering: Cross Section and Interaction Length
2.5.1 Total Cross Section
2.5.2 Differential Cross Sections
2.5.3 Cross Sections at Colliders
2.5.4 Partial Cross Sections
2.5.5 Interaction Length
2.6 Description of Decay: Width and Lifetime
2.7 Fermi Golden Rule and Rutherford Scattering
2.7.1 Transition Amplitude
2.7.2 Flux

2.7.3 Density of States
2.7.4 Rutherford Cross Section
2.8 Particle Scattering in Static Fields
2.8.1 Extended Charge Distributions (Nonrelativistic)
2.8.2 Finite Range Interactions
2.8.3 Electron Scattering
2.9 Special Relativity
2.9.1 Lorentz Transformations
2.9.2 Space–Time Interval
2.9.3 Velocity Four-Vector
2.9.4 Energy and Momentum
2.9.5 Examples of Relativistic Dynamics
2.9.6 Mandelstam Variables
2.9.7 Lorentz Invariant Fermi Rule
2.9.8 The Electromagnetic Tensor and the Covariant Formulation of Electromagnetism
2.10 Natural Units
3 Cosmic Rays and the Development of Particle Physics 
3.1 The Puzzle of Atmospheric Ionization and the Discovery of Cosmic Rays
3.1.1 Underwater Experiments and Experiments Carried Out at Altitude
3.1.2 The Nature of Cosmic Rays
3.2 Cosmic Rays and the Beginning of Particle Physics
3.2.1 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics and Antimatter: From the Schrödinger Equation to the Klein–Gordon and Dirac Equations
3.2.2 The Discovery of Antimatter
3.2.3 Cosmic Rays and the Progress of Particle Physics
3.2.4 The l Lepton and the p Mesons
3.2.5 Strange Particles
3.2.6 Mountain-Top Laboratories
3.3 Particle Hunters Become Farmers
3.4 The Recent Years
4 Particle Detection 
4.1 Interaction of Particles with Matter
4.1.1 Charged Particle Interactions
4.1.2 Range
4.1.3 Multiple Scattering
4.1.4 Photon Interactions
4.1.5 Nuclear (Hadronic) Interactions
4.1.6 Interaction of Neutrinos

4.1.7 Electromagnetic Showers
4.1.8 Hadronic Showers
4.2 Particle Detectors
4.2.1 Track Detectors
4.2.2 Photosensors
4.2.3 Cherenkov Detectors
4.2.4 Transition Radiation Detectors
4.2.5 Calorimeters
4.3 High-Energy Particles
4.3.1 Artificial Accelerators
4.3.2 Cosmic Rays as Very-High-Energy Beams
4.4 Detector Systems and Experiments at Accelerators
4.4.1 Examples of Detectors for Fixed-Target Experiments
4.4.2 Examples of Detectors for Colliders
4.5 Cosmic-Ray Detectors
4.5.1 Interaction of Cosmic Rays with the Atmosphere: Extensive Air Showers
4.5.2 Detectors of Charged Cosmic Rays
4.5.3 Detection of Hard Photons
4.5.4 Neutrino Detection
4.6 Detection of Gravitational Waves
5 Particles and Symmetries
5.1 A Zoo of Particles
5.2 Symmetries and Conservation Laws: The Noether Theorem
5.3 Symmetries and Groups
5.3.1 A Quantum Mechanical View of the Noether’s
Theorem
5.3.2 Some Fundamental Symmetries in Quantum
Mechanics
5.3.3 Unitary Groups and Special Unitary Groups
5.3.4 SU(2)
5.3.5 SU(3)
5.3.6 Discrete Symmetries: Parity, Charge Conjugation, and Time Reversal
5.3.7 Isospin
5.3.8 The Eightfold Way
5.4 The Quark Model
5.4.1 SU(3)flavor
5.4.2 Color
5.4.3 Excited States (Nonzero Angular Momenta Between Quarks)

5.4.4 The Charm Quark
5.4.5 Beauty and Top
5.4.6 Exotic Hadrons
5.4.7 Quark Families
5.5 Quarks and Partons
5.5.1 Elastic Scattering
5.5.2 Inelastic Scattering Kinematics
5.5.3 Deep Inelastic Scattering
5.5.4 The Quark–Parton Model
5.5.5 The Number of Quark Colors
5.6 Leptons
5.6.1 The Discovery of the ¿ Lepton
5.6.2 Three Neutrinos
5.7 The Particle Data Group and the Particle Data Book
5.7.1 PDG: Estimates of Physical Quantities
5.7.2 Averaging Procedures by the PDG
6 Interactions and Field Theories
6.1 The Lagrangian Representation of a Dynamical System
6.1.1 The Lagrangian and the Noether Theorem
6.1.2 Lagrangians and Fields; Lagrangian Density
6.1.3 Lagrangian Density and Mass
6.2 Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)
6.2.1 Electrodynamics
6.2.2 Minimal Coupling
6.2.3 Gauge Invariance
6.2.4 Dirac Equation Revisited
6.2.5 Klein–Gordon Equation Revisited
6.2.6 The Lagrangian for a Charged Fermion in an Electromagnetic Field: Electromagnetism as a Field Theory
6.2.7 An Introduction to Feynman Diagrams: Electromagnetic Interactions Between Charged Spinless Particles
6.2.8 Electron–Muon Elastic Scattering (el ! el)
6.2.9 Feynman Diagram Rules for QED
6.2.10 Muon Pair Production from ee þ Annihilation
(ee þ ! ll þ )
6.2.11 Bhabha Scattering ee þ ! ee þ
6.2.12 Renormalization and Vacuum Polarization
6.3 Weak Interactions
6.3.1 The Fermi Model of Weak Interactions
6.3.2 Parity Violation

6.3.3 V-A Theory
6.3.4 “Left” and “Right” Chiral Particle States
6.3.5 Intermediate Vector Bosons
6.3.6 The Cabibbo Angle and the GIM Mechanism
6.3.7 Extension to Three Quark Families: The CKM Matrix
6.3.8 C P Violation
6.3.9 Matter–Antimatter Asymmetry
6.4 Strong Interactions and QCD
6.4.1 Yang–Mills Theories
6.4.2 The Lagrangian of QCD
6.4.3 Vertices in QCD; Color Factors
6.4.4 The Strong Coupling
6.4.5 Asymptotic Freedom and Confinement
6.4.6 Hadronization; Final States from Hadronic Interactions
6.4.7 Hadronic Cross Section
7 The Higgs Mechanism and the Standard Model of Particle Physics 
7.1 The Higgs Mechanism and the Origin of Mass
7.1.1 Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking
7.1.2 An Example from Classical Mechanics
7.1.3 Application to Field Theory: Massless Fields Acquire Mass
7.1.4 From SSB to the Higgs Mechanism: Gauge Symmetries and the Mass of Gauge Bosons
7.2 Electroweak Unification
7.2.1 The Formalism of the Electroweak Theory
7.2.2 The Higgs Mechanism in the Electroweak Theory and the Mass of the Electroweak Bosons
7.2.3 The Fermion Masses
7.2.4 Interactions Between Fermions and Gauge Bosons
7.2.5 Self-interactions of Gauge Bosons
7.2.6 Feynman Diagram Rules for the Electroweak Interaction
7.3 The Lagrangian of the Standard Model
7.3.1 The Higgs Particle in the Standard Model
7.3.2 Standard Model Parameters
7.3.3 Accidental Symmetries
7.4 Observables in the Standard Model
7.5 Experimental Tests of the Standard Model at Accelerators
7.5.1 Data Versus Experiments: LEP (and the Tevatron)

7.5.2 LHC and the Discovery of the Higgs Boson
7.6 Beyond the Minimal SM of Particle Physics; Unification of Forces
7.6.1 Grand Unified Theories
7.6.2 Supersymmetry
7.6.3 Strings and Extra Dimensions; Superstrings
7.6.4 Compositeness
8 The Standard Model of Cosmology and the Dark Universe
8.1 Experimental Cosmology
8.1.1 The Universe Is Expanding
8.1.2 Expansion Is Accelerating
8.1.3 Cosmic Microwave Background
8.1.4 Primordial Nucleosynthesis
8.1.5 Astrophysical Evidence for Dark Matter
8.1.6 Age of the Universe: A First Estimate
8.2 General Relativity
8.2.1 Equivalence Principle
8.2.2 Light and Time in a Gravitational Field
8.2.3 Flat and Curved Spaces
8.2.4 Einstein’s Equations
8.2.5 The Friedmann–Lemaitre–Robertson–Walker Model (Friedmann Equations)
8.2.6 Critical Density of the Universe; Normalized Densities
8.2.7 Age of the Universe from the Friedmann Equations and Evolution Scenarios
8.2.8 Black Holes
8.2.9 Gravitational Waves
8.3 Past, Present, and Future of the Universe
8.3.1 Early Universe
8.3.2 Inflation and Large-Scale Structures
8.4 The KCDM Model
8.4.1 Dark Matter Decoupling and the “WIMP Miracle”
8.5 What Is Dark Matter Made of, and How Can It Be Found?
8.5.1 WISPs: Neutrinos, Axions and ALPs
8.5.2 WIMPs
8.5.3 Other Nonbaryonic Candidates

9 The Properties of Neutrinos
9.1 Sources and Detectors; Evidence of the Transmutation of the Neutrino Flavor
9.1.1 Solar Neutrinos, and the Solar Neutrino Problem
9.1.2 Neutrino Oscillation in a Two-Flavor System
9.1.3 Long-Baseline Reactor Experiments
9.1.4 Estimation of ”e ! ”l Oscillation Parameters
9.1.5 Atmospheric Neutrinos and the ”l ! ”¿ Oscillation
9.1.6 Phenomenology of Neutrino Oscillations: Extension to Three Families
9.1.7 Short-Baseline Reactor Experiments, and the Determination of h13
9.1.8 Accelerator Neutrino Beams
9.1.9 Explicit Appearance Experiment
9.1.10 A Gift from Nature: Geo-Neutrinos
9.2 Neutrino Oscillation Parameters
9.3 Neutrino Masses
9.3.1 The Constraints from Cosmological and Astrophysical Data
9.3.2 Direct Measurements of the Electron Neutrino Mass: Beta Decays
9.3.3 Direct Measurements of the Muon- and Tau-Neutrino Masses
9.3.4 Incorporating Neutrino Masses in the Theory
9.3.5 Majorana Neutrinos and the Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay
9.3.6 Present Mass Limits and Prospects
10 Messengers from the High-Energy Universe 
10.1 How Are High-Energy Cosmic Rays Produced?
10.1.1 Acceleration of Charged Cosmic Rays: The Fermi Mechanism
10.1.2 Production of High-Energy Gamma Rays and Neutrinos
10.1.3 Top-Down Mechanisms; Possible Origin from Dark Matter Particles
10.2 Possible Acceleration Sites and Sources
10.2.1 Stellar Endproducts as Acceleration Sites
10.2.2 Other Galactic Sources
10.2.3 Extragalactic Acceleration Sites: Active Galactic Nuclei and Other Galaxies
10.2.4 Extragalactic Acceleration Sites: Gamma Ray Bursts

10.2.5 Gamma Rays and the Origin of Cosmic Rays: The Roles of SNRs and AGN
10.2.6 Sources of Neutrinos
10.2.7 Sources of Gravitational Waves
10.3 The Propagation
10.3.1 Magnetic Fields in the Universe
10.3.2 Photon Background
10.3.3 Propagation of Charged Cosmic Rays
10.3.4 Propagation of Photons
10.3.5 Propagation of Neutrinos
10.3.6 Propagation of Gravitational Waves
10.4 More Experimental Results
10.4.1 Charged Cosmic Rays: Composition, Extreme Energies, Correlation with Sources
10.4.2 Photons: Different Source Types, Transients, Fundamental Physics
10.4.3 Astrophysical Neutrinos
10.4.4 Gravitational Radiation
10.5 Future Experiments and Open Questions
10.5.1 Charged Cosmic Rays
10.5.2 Gamma Rays
10.5.3 The PeV Region
10.5.4 High Energy Neutrinos
10.5.5 Gravitational Waves
10.5.6 Multi-messenger Astrophysics
11 Astrobiology and the Relation of Fundamental Physics to Life
11.1 What Is Life?
11.1.1 Schrödinger’s Definition of Life
11.1.2 The Recipe of Life
11.1.3 Life in Extreme Environments
11.1.4 The Kickoff
11.2 Life in the Solar System, Outside Earth
11.2.1 Planets of the Solar System
11.2.2 Satellites of Giant Planets
11.3 Life Outside the Solar System, and the Search for Alien Civilizations
11.3.1 The “Drake Equation”
11.3.2 The Search for Extrasolar Habitable Planets
11.3.3 The Fermi Paradox

11.3.4 Searching for Biosignatures
11.3.5 Looking for Technological Civilizations: Listening to Messages from Space
11.3.6 Sending Messages to the Universe
11.4 Conclusions

Author: Alessandro De Angelis, Mário Pimenta

Following the approach of Lev Landau and Evgenii Lifshitz, this book introduces the theory of special and general relativity with the Lagrangian formalism and the principle of least action. This method allows the complete theory to be constructed starting from a small number of assumptions, and is the most natural approach in modern theoretical physics. The book begins by reviewing Newtonian mechanics and Newtonian gravity with the Lagrangian formalism and the principle of least action, and then moves to special and general relativity. Most calculations are presented step by step, as is done on the board in class. The book covers recent advances in gravitational wave astronomy and provides a general overview of current lines of research in gravity. It also includes numerous examples and problems in each chapter.

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Summary

1 Introduction
1.1 Special Principle of Relativity
1.2 Euclidean Space
1.3 Scalars, Vectors, and Tensors
1.4 Galilean Transformations
1.5 Principle of Least Action
1.6 Constants of Motion
1.7 Geodesic Equations
1.8 Newton’s Gravity
1.9 Kepler’s Laws
1.10 Maxwell’s Equations
1.11 Michelson–Morley Experiment
1.12 Towards the Theory of Special Relativity

2 Special Relativity
2.1 Einstein’s Principle of Relativity
2.2 Minkowski Spacetime
2.3 Lorentz Transformations
2.4 Proper Time
2.5 Transformation Rules
2.5.1 Superluminal Motion
2.6 Example: Cosmic Ray Muons

3 Relativistic Mechanics 
3.1 Action for a Free Particle
3.2 Momentum and Energy
3.2.1 3-Dimensional Formalism
3.2.2 4-Dimensional Formalism

3.3 Massless Particles
3.4 Particle Collisions
3.5 Example: Colliders Versus Fixed-Target Accelerators
3.6 Example: The GZK Cut-Off
3.7 Multi-body Systems
3.8 Lagrangian Formalism for Fields
3.9 Energy-Momentum Tensor
3.10 Examples
3.10.1 Energy-Momentum Tensor of a Free Point-Like
Particle
3.10.2 Energy-Momentum Tensor of a Perfect Fluid

4 Electromagnetism 
4.1 Action
4.2 Motion of a Charged Particle
4.2.1 3-Dimensional Formalism
4.2.2 4-Dimensional Formalism
4.3 Maxwell’s Equations in Covariant Form
4.3.1 Homogeneous Maxwell’s Equations
4.3.2 Inhomogeneous Maxwell’s Equations
4.4 Gauge Invariance
4.5 Energy-Momentum Tensor of the Electromagnetic Field
4.6 Examples
4.6.1 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Constant Uniform Electric Field
4.6.2 Electromagnetic Field Generated by a Charged

5 Riemannian Geometry 
5.1 Motivations
5.2 Covariant Derivative
5.2.1 Definition
5.2.2 Parallel Transport
5.2.3 Properties of the Covariant Derivative
5.3 Useful Expressions
5.4 Riemann Tensor
5.4.1 Definition
5.4.2 Geometrical Interpretation
5.4.3 Ricci Tensor and Scalar Curvature
5.4.4 Bianchi Identities
6 General Relativity
6.1 General Covariance
6.2 Einstein Equivalence Principle
6.3 Connection to the Newtonian Potential
6.4 Locally Inertial Frames
6.4.1 Locally Minkowski Reference Frames
6.4.2 Locally Inertial Reference Frames
6.5 Measurements of Time Intervals
6.6 Example: GPS Satellites
6.7 Non-gravitational Phenomena in Curved Spacetimes
7 Einstein’s Gravity 
7.1 Einstein Equations
7.2 Newtonian Limit
7.3 Einstein–Hilbert Action
7.4 Matter Energy-Momentum Tensor
7.4.1 Definition
7.4.2 Examples
7.4.3 Covariant Conservation of the Matter Energy-Momentum Tensor
7.5 Pseudo-Tensor of Landau–Lifshitz
8 Schwarzschild Spacetime 
8.1 Spherically Symmetric Spacetimes
8.2 Birkhoff’s Theorem
8.3 Schwarzschild Metric
8.4 Motion in the Schwarzschild Metric
8.5 Schwarzschild Black Holes
8.6 Penrose Diagrams
8.6.1 Minkowski Spacetime
8.6.2 Schwarzschild Spacetime
9 Classical Tests of General Relativity 
9.1 Gravitational Redshift of Light
9.2 Perihelion Precession of Mercury
9.3 Deflection of Light
9.4 Shapiro’s Effect
9.5 Parametrized Post-Newtonian Formalism

10 Black Holes 
10.1 Definition
10.2 Reissner–Nordström Black Holes
10.3 Kerr Black Holes
10.3.1 Equatorial Circular Orbits
10.3.2 Fundamental Frequencies
10.3.3 Frame Dragging
10.4 No-Hair Theorem
10.5 Gravitational Collapse
10.5.1 Dust Collapse
10.5.2 Homogeneous Dust Collapse
10.6 Penrose Diagrams
10.6.1 Reissner–Nordström Spacetime
10.6.2 Kerr Spacetime
10.6.3 Oppenheimer–Snyder Spacetime
11 Cosmological Models
11.1 Friedmann–Robertson–Walker Metric
11.2 Friedmann Equations
11.3 Cosmological Models
11.3.1 Einstein Universe
11.3.2 Matter Dominated Universe
11.3.3 Radiation Dominated Universe
11.3.4 Vacuum Dominated Universe
11.4 Properties of the Friedmann–Robertson–Walker Metric
11.4.1 Cosmological Redshift
11.4.2 Particle Horizon
11.5 Primordial Plasma
11.6 Age of the Universe
11.7 Destiny of the Universe

12 Gravitational Waves 
12.1 Historical Overview
12.2 Gravitational Waves in Linearized Gravity
12.2.1 Harmonic Gauge
12.2.2 Transverse-Traceless Gauge
12.3 Quadrupole Formula
12.4 Energy of Gravitational Waves

12.5 Examples
12.5.1 Gravitational Waves from a Rotating Neutron Star
12.5.2 Gravitational Waves from a Binary System
12.6 Astrophysical Sources
12.6.1 Coalescing Black Holes
12.6.2 Extreme-Mass Ratio Inspirals
12.6.3 Neutron Stars
12.7 Gravitational Wave Detectors
12.7.1 Resonant Detectors
12.7.2 Interferometers
12.7.3 Pulsar Timing Arrays

13 Beyond Einstein’s Gravity
13.1 Spacetime Singularities
13.2 Quantization of Einstein’s Gravity
13.3 Black Hole Thermodynamics and Information Paradox
13.4 Cosmological Constant Problem
Author: Cosimo Bambi

This book gives a survey of astrophysics at the advanced undergraduate level. It originates from a two-semester course sequence at Rutgers University that is meant to appeal not only to astrophysics students but also more broadly to physics and engineering students. The organization is driven more by physics than by astronomy; in other words, topics are first developed in physics and then applied to astronomical systems that can be investigated, rather than the other way around.

The first half of the book focuses on gravity. Gravity is the dominant force in many astronomical systems, so a tremendous amount can be learned by studying gravity, motion and mass. The theme in this part of the book, as well as throughout astrophysics, is using motion to investigate mass. The goal of Chapters 2-11 is to develop a progressively richer understanding of gravity as it applies to objects ranging from planets and moons to galaxies and the universe as a whole. The second half uses other aspects of physics to address one of the big questions. While “Why are we here?” lies beyond the realm of physics, a closely related question is within our reach: “How did we get here?” The goal of Chapters 12-21 is to understand the physics behind the remarkable story of how the Universe, Earth and life were formed. This book assumes familiarity with vector calculus and introductory physics (mechanics, electromagnetism, gas physics and atomic physics); however, all of the physics topics are reviewed as they come up (and vital aspects of vector calculus are reviewed in the Appendix).

This volume is aimed at undergraduate students majoring in astrophysics, physics or engineering.

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Summary

1 Introduction: Tools of the Trade 
1.1 What Is Gravity?
1.2 Dimensions and Units
1.2.1 Fundamental Dimensions
1.2.2 Constants of Nature
1.2.3 Astrophysical Units
1.2.4 Dimensional Analysis
1.3 Using the Tools
1.3.1 Phases of an Electron Gas
1.3.2 Stars, Familiar and Exotic

Part I Using Gravity and Motion to Measure Mass
2 Celestial Mechanics
2.1 Motions in the Sky
2.2 Laws of Motion
2.3 Law of Gravity

3 Gravitational One-Body Problem
3.1 Deriving Kepler’s Laws
3.2 Using Kepler III: Motion ! Mass
3.2.1 The Black Hole at the Center of the Milky Way
3.2.2 Supermassive Black Holes in Other Galaxies
3.2.3 Active Galactic Nuclei
3.3 Related Concepts
3.3.1 Sphere of Influence
3.3.2 Stellar Dynamical Evaporation
4 Gravitational Two-Body Problem 
4.1 Equivalent One-Body Problem
4.1.1 Setup
4.1.2 Motion
4.1.3 Energy and Angular Momentum
4.1.4 Velocity Curve
4.1.5 Application to the Solar System
4.1.6 Kepler III Revisited
4.2 Binary Stars
4.2.1 Background: Inclination
4.2.2 Visual Binary
4.2.3 Spectroscopic Binary
4.2.4 Eclipsing Binary
4.3 Extrasolar Planets
4.3.1 Doppler Planets
4.3.2 Transiting Planets
4.3.3 Status of Exoplanet Research

5 Tidal Forces
5.1 Derivation of the Tidal Force
5.2 Effects of Tidal Forces
5.2.1 Earth/Moon
5.2.2 Jupiter’s Moon Io
5.2.3 Extrasolar Planets
5.3 Tidal Disruption

6 Gravitational Three-Body Problem 
6.1 Two “Stars” and One “Planet”
6.1.1 Theory: Lagrange Points
6.1.2 Applications
6.2 One “Planet” and Two “Moons”
6.2.1 Theory: Resonances
6.2.2 Applications

7 Extended Mass Distributions: Spiral Galaxies
7.1 Galaxy Properties
7.1.1 Luminosity Profiles
7.1.2 Concepts of Motion
7.2 Equations of Motion
7.2.1 Spherical Symmetry
7.2.2 Axial Symmetry
7.3 Rotational Dynamics
7.3.1 Predictions
7.3.2 Observations and Interpretation
7.3.3 Cold Dark Matter
7.3.4 Is Dark Matter Real?
7.4 Beyond Rotation
7.4.1 Tangential Motion
7.4.2 Vertical Motion
7.4.3 Radial Motion
7.4.4 Application to Spiral Arms

8 N-Body Problem: Elliptical Galaxies
8.1 Gravitational N-Body Problem
8.1.1 Equations of Motion
8.1.2 Conservation of Energy
8.1.3 Virial Theorem
8.1.4 A Simple Application: N = 2
8.2 Elliptical Galaxies
8.2.1 Potential Energy
8.2.2 Kinetic Energy
8.2.3 Mass Estimate
8.3 Galaxy Interactions
8.3.1 Fly-By
8.3.2 Collision
8.4 Other N-Body Problems
9 Bending of Light by Gravity
9.1 Principles of Gravitational Lensing
9.1.1 Gravitational Deflection
9.1.2 Lens Equation
9.1.3 Lensing by a Point Mass
9.1.4 Distortion and Magnification
9.1.5 Time Delay
9.2 Microlensing
9.2.1 Theory
9.2.2 Observations
9.2.3 Binary Lenses
9.2.4 Planets
9.3 Strong Lensing
9.3.1 Extended Mass Distribution
9.3.2 Circular Mass Distribution
9.3.3 Singular Isothermal Sphere
9.3.4 Singular Isothermal Ellipsoid
9.3.5 Spherical Galaxy with External Shear
9.3.6 Science with Galaxy Strong Lensing
9.4 Weak Lensing

10 Relativity 
10.1 Space and Time: Classical View
10.2 Special Theory of Relativity
10.2.1 Lorentz Transformation
10.2.2 Loss of Simultaneity
10.2.3 Time Dilation
10.2.4 Doppler Effect
10.2.5 Length Contraction
10.3 General Theory of Relativity
10.3.1 Concepts of General Relativity
10.3.2 Principle of Equivalence
10.3.3 Curvature of Spacetime
10.3.4 Gravitational Redshift and Time Dilation
10.4 Applications of General Relativity
10.4.1 Mercury’s Perihelion Shift (1916)
10.4.2 Bending of Light (1919)
10.4.3 Gravitational Redshift on Earth (1960)
10.4.4 Gravitational Redshift from a White Dwarf (1971)
10.4.5 Flying Clocks (1971)
10.4.6 Global Positioning System (1989)
10.5 Mathematics of Relativity
10.5.1 Spacetime Interval
10.5.2 4-Vectors
10.5.3 Relativistic Momentum and Energy
10.6 Black Holes
10.6.1 Schwarzschild Metric
10.6.2 Spacetime Geometry
10.6.3 Particle in a Circular Orbit
10.6.4 General Motion Around a Black Hole
10.6.5 Gravitational Deflection
10.7 Other Effects

11 Cosmology: Expanding Universe 
11.1 Hubble’s Law and the Expanding Universe
11.2 Relativistic Cosmology
11.2.1 Robertson-Walker Metric
11.2.2 The Friedmann Equation
11.2.3 Einstein’s Greatest Blunder
11.2.4 FRW Cosmology
11.3 Observational Cosmology
11.3.1 Cosmological Redshift
11.3.2 Cosmological Distances
11.3.3 Results

Part II Using Stellar Physics to Explore the Cosmos
12 Planetary Atmospheres
12.1 Kinetic Theory of Gases
12.1.1 Temperature and the Boltzmann Distribution
12.1.2 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution of Particle Speeds
12.1.3 Pressure and the Ideal Gas Law
12.1.4 Assumptions in the Ideal Gas Law
12.2 Hydrostatic Equilibrium
12.3 Planetary Atmospheres
12.3.1 Density Profile
12.3.2 Exosphere
12.3.3 Evaporation

13 Planetary Temperatures
13.1 Blackbody Radiation
13.1.1 Luminosity
13.1.2 Spectrum
13.1.3 Color
13.1.4 Pressure
13.2 Predicting Planet Temperatures
13.3 Atmospheric Heating
13.3.1 One Layer
13.3.2 Many Layers
13.3.3 Optical Depth
13.4 Interaction of Light with Matter
13.4.1 Photoionization
13.4.2 Electron Excitation
13.4.3 Molecular Vibration

13.4.4 Molecular Rotation
13.4.5 Recap
13.5 Greenhouse Effect and Climate Change
13.5.1 Earth
13.5.2 Venus

14 Stellar Atmospheres 
14.1 Atomic Excitation and Ionization
14.1.1 Energy Level Occupation
14.1.2 Ionization Stages
14.1.3 Application to Hydrogen
14.2 Stellar Spectral Classification

15 Nuclear Fusion 
15.1 What Powers the Sun?
15.2 Physics of Fusion
15.2.1 Mass and Energy Scales
15.2.2 Requirements for Fusion
15.2.3 Cross Section
15.2.4 Reaction Rate
15.3 Nuclear Reactions in Stars
15.3.1 Cast of Characters
15.3.2 Masses and Binding Energies
15.3.3 Burning Hydrogen Into Helium
15.4 Solar Neutrinos
15.4.1 Neutrino Production in the Sun
15.4.2 Neutrino Detection (I)
15.4.3 Neutrino Oscillations
15.4.4 Neutrino Detection (II)

16 Stellar Structure and Evolution
16.1 Energy Transport
16.1.1 Conduction
16.1.2 Convection
16.2 Stellar Models
16.2.1 Equations of Stellar Structure
16.2.2 The Sun
16.2.3 Other Stars
16.3 Evolution of Low-Mass Stars (M . 8 Mˇ)
16.3.1 Hydrogen, Helium, and Beyond
16.3.2 Observations
16.4 Evolution of High-Mass Stars (M & 8 Mˇ)
16.4.1 Beyond Carbon and Oxygen
16.4.2 Explosion: Supernova
16.4.3 Beyond Iron

17 Stellar Remnants 
17.1 Cold, Degenerate Gas
17.2 White Dwarfs
17.2.1 Equation of State
17.2.2 Polytropic Stars
17.2.3 Testing the Theory
17.3 Neutron Stars and Pulsars

18 Charting the Universe with Stars
18.1 Stellar Pulsations
18.1.1 Observations
18.1.2 Theory
18.2 Standard Candles

19 Star and Planet Formation
19.1 Gravitational Collapse
19.1.1 Equilibrium: Virial Temperature
19.1.2 Conditions for Collapse
19.1.3 Fragmentation
19.1.4 Collapse Time Scale
19.2 Gas Cooling
19.3 Halting the Collapse
19.3.1 Cessation of Cooling
19.3.2 Radiation Pressure
19.3.3 Other Effects
19.4 Protoplanetary Disks
19.4.1 Temperature Structure
19.4.2 Picture of Planet Formation

20 Cosmology: Early Universe
20.1 Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation
20.1.1 Hot Big Bang
20.1.2 Theory: Recombination Temperature
20.1.3 Observations
20.1.4 Implications
20.2 Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
20.2.1 Theory: “The First Three Minutes”
20.2.2 Observations: Primordial Abundances
20.3 How Did We Get Here?
Author: Charles Keeton

 

This long-awaited second edition of the classical textbook on Stellar Structure and Evolution by Kippenhahn and Weigert is a thoroughly revised version of the original text. Taking into account modern observational constraints as well as additional physical effects such as mass loss and diffusion, Achim Weiss and Rudolf Kippenhahn have succeeded in bringing the book up to the state-of-the-art with respect to both the presentation of stellar physics and the presentation and interpretation of current sophisticated stellar models. The well-received and proven pedagogical approach of the first edition has been retained.

The book provides a comprehensive treatment of the physics of the stellar interior and the underlying fundamental processes and parameters. The models developed to explain the stability, dynamics and evolution of the stars are presented and great care is taken to detail the various stages in a star’s life. Just as the first edition, which remained a standard work for more than 20 years after its first publication, the second edition will be of lasting value not only for students but also for active researchers in astronomy and astrophysics.

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Summary

Part I The Basic Equations
1 Coordinates, Mass Distribution, and Gravitational Field in Spherical Stars
1.1 Eulerian Description
1.2 Lagrangian Description
1.3 The Gravitational Field
2 Conservation of Momentum
2.1 Hydrostatic Equilibrium
2.2 The Role of Density and Simple Solutions
2.3 Simple Estimates of Central Values Pc; Tc
2.4 The Equation of Motion for Spherical Symmetry
2.5 The Non-spherical Case
2.6 Hydrostatic Equilibrium in General Relativity
2.7 The Piston Model
3 The Virial Theorem 
3.1 Stars in Hydrostatic Equilibrium
3.2 The Virial Theorem of the Piston Model
3.3 The Kelvin–Helmholtz Timescale
3.4 The Virial Theorem for Non-vanishing Surface Pressure
4 Conservation of Energy
4.1 Thermodynamic Relations
4.2 The Perfect Gas and the Mean Molecular Weight
4.3 Thermodynamic Quantities for the Perfect, Monatomic Gas
4.4 Energy Conservation in Stars
4.5 Global and Local Energy Conservation
4.6 Timescales

5 Transport of Energy by Radiation and Conduction 
5.1 Radiative Transport of Energy
5.1.1 Basic Estimates
5.1.2 Diffusion of Radiative Energy
5.1.3 The Rosseland Mean for
5.2 Conductive Transport of Energy
5.3 The Thermal Adjustment Time of a Star
5.4 Thermal Properties of the Piston Model
6 Stability Against Local, Non-spherical Perturbations
6.1 Dynamical Instability
6.2 Oscillation of a Displaced Element
6.3 Vibrational Stability
6.4 The Thermal Adjustment Time
6.5 Secular Instability
6.6 The Stability of the Piston Model
7 Transport of Energy by Convection 
7.1 The Basic Picture
7.2 Dimensionless Equations
7.3 Limiting Cases, Solutions, Discussion
7.4 Extensions of the Mixing-Length Theory
8 The Chemical Composition
8.1 Relative Mass Abundances
8.2 Variation of Composition with Time
8.2.1 Radiative Regions
8.2.2 Diffusion
8.2.3 Convective Regions
9 Mass Loss
Part II The Overall Problem
10 The Differential Equations of Stellar Evolution
10.1 The Full Set of Equations
10.2 Timescales and Simplifications
11 Boundary Conditions
11.1 Central Conditions
11.2 Surface Conditions
11.3 Influence of the Surface Conditions and Properties of Envelope Solutions
11.3.1 Radiative Envelope
11.3.2 Convective Envelopes
11.3.3 Summary
11.3.4 The T r Stratification
12 Numerical Procedure
12.1 The Shooting Method
12.2 The Henyey Method
12.3 Treatment of the First- and Second-Order Time Derivatives
12.4 Treatment of the Diffusion Equation
12.5 Treatment of Mass Loss
12.6 Existence and Uniqueness
Part III Properties of Stellar Matter
13 The Perfect Gas with Radiation
13.1 Radiation Pressure
13.2 Thermodynamic Quantities
14 Ionization 
14.1 The Boltzmann and Saha Formulae
14.2 Ionization of Hydrogen
14.3 Thermodynamical Quantities for a Pure Hydrogen Gas
14.4 Hydrogen–Helium Mixtures
14.5 The General Case
14.6 Limitation of the Saha Formula
15 The Degenerate Electron Gas 
15.1 Consequences of the Pauli Principle
15.2 The Completely Degenerate Electron Gas
15.3 Limiting Cases
15.4 Partial Degeneracy of the Electron Gas
16 The Equation of State of Stellar Matter
16.1 The Ion Gas
16.2 The Equation of State
16.3 Thermodynamic Quantities
16.4 Crystallization
16.5 Neutronization
16.6 Real Gas Effects
17 Opacity
17.1 Electron Scattering
17.2 Absorption Due to Free–Free Transitions
17.3 Bound–Free Transitions
17.4 Bound–Bound Transitions
17.5 The Negative Hydrogen Ion
17.6 Conduction
17.7 Molecular Opacities
17.8 Opacity Tables

 

18 Nuclear Energy Production
18.1 Basic Considerations
18.2 Nuclear Cross Sections
18.3 Thermonuclear Reaction Rates
18.4 Electron Shielding
18.5 The Major Nuclear Burning Stages
18.5.1 Hydrogen Burning
18.5.2 Helium Burning
18.5.3 Carbon Burning and Beyond
18.6 Neutron-Capture Nucleosynthesis
18.7 Neutrinos
Part IV Simple Stellar Models
19 Polytropic Gaseous Spheres 
19.1 Polytropic Relations
19.2 Polytropic Stellar Models
19.3 Properties of the Solutions
19.4 Application to Stars
19.5 Radiation Pressure and the Polytrope n D 3
19.6 Polytropic Stellar Models with Fixed K
19.7 Chandrasekhar’s Limiting Mass
19.8 Isothermal Spheres of an Ideal Gas
19.9 Gravitational and Total Energy for Polytropes
19.10 Supermassive Stars
19.11 A Collapsing Polytrope
20 Homology Relations
20.1 Definitions and Basic Relations
20.2 Applications to Simple Material Functions
20.2.1 The Case ı D 0
20.2.2 The Case ̨ D ı D ‘ D 1; a D b D 0
20.2.3 The Role of the Equation of State
20.3 Homologous Contraction
21 Simple Models in the U –V Plane 
21.1 The U–V Plane
21.2 Radiative Envelope Solutions
21.3 Fitting of a Convective Core
21.4 Fitting of an Isothermal Core
22 The Zero-Age Main Sequence 
22.1 Surface Values
22.2 Interior Solutions
22.3 Convective Regions
22.4 Extreme Values of M
22.5 The Eddington Luminosity
23 Other Main Sequences 
23.1 The Helium Main Sequence
23.2 The Carbon Main Sequence
23.3 Generalized Main Sequences
24 The Hayashi Line 
24.1 Luminosity of Fully Convective Models
24.2 A Simple Description of the Hayashi Line
24.3 The Neighbourhood of the Hayashi Line and the Forbidden Region
24.4 Numerical Results
24.5 Limitations for Fully Convective Models
25 Stability Considerations 
25.1 General Remarks
25.2 Stability of the Piston Model
25.2.1 Dynamical Stability
25.2.2 Inclusion of Non-adiabatic Effects
25.3 Stellar Stability
25.3.1 Perturbation Equations
25.3.2 Dynamical Stability
25.3.3 Non-adiabatic Effects
25.3.4 The Gravothermal Specific Heat
25.3.5 Secular Stability Behaviour of Nuclear Burning

Part V Early Stellar Evolution
26 The Onset of Star Formation 
26.1 The Jeans Criterion
26.1.1 An Infinite Homogeneous Medium
26.1.2 A Plane-Parallel Layer in Hydrostatic Equilibrium
26.2 Instability in the Spherical Case
26.3 Fragmentation
27 The Formation of Protostars 
27.1 Free-Fall Collapse of a Homogeneous Sphere
27.2 Collapse onto a Condensed Object
27.3 A Collapse Calculation
27.4 The Optically Thin Phase and the Formation of a Hydrostatic Core
27.5 Core Collapse
27.6 Evolution in the Hertzsprung–Russell Diagram
28 Pre-Main-Sequence Contraction
28.1 Homologous Contraction of a Gaseous Sphere
28.2 Approach to the Zero-Age Main Sequence
29 From the Initial to the Present Sun 
29.1 Known Solar Data
29.2 Choosing the Initial Model
29.3 A Standard Solar Model
29.4 Results of Helioseismology
29.5 Solar Neutrinos
30 Evolution on the Main Sequence 
30.1 Change in the Hydrogen Content
30.2 Evolution in the Hertzsprung–Russell Diagram
30.3 Timescales for Central Hydrogen Burning
30.4 Complications Connected with Convection
30.4.1 Convective Overshooting
30.4.2 Semiconvection
30.5 The Schonberg–Chandrasekhar Limit
30.5.1 A Simple Approach: The Virial Theorem and Homology
30.5.2 Integrations for Core and Envelope
30.5.3 Complete Solutions for Stars with Isothermal Cores

 

Part VI Post-Main-Sequence Evolution
31 Evolution Through Helium Burning: Intermediate-Mass Stars
31.1 Crossing the Hertzsprung Gap
31.2 Central Helium Burning
31.3 The Cepheid Phase
31.4 To Loop or Not to Loop
31.5 After Central Helium Burning
32 Evolution Through Helium Burning: Massive Stars
32.1 Semiconvection
32.2 Overshooting
32.3 Mass Loss
33 Evolution Through Helium Burning: Low-Mass Stars
33.1 Post-Main-Sequence Evolution
33.2 Shell-Source Homology
33.3 Evolution Along the Red Giant Branch
33.4 The Helium Flash
33.5 Numerical Results for the Helium Flash
33.6 Evolution After the Helium Flash
33.7 Evolution from the Zero-Age Horizontal Branch

 

Part VII Late Phases of Stellar Evolution
34 Evolution on the Asymptotic Giant Branch 
34.1 Nuclear Shells on the Asymptotic Giant Branch
34.2 Shell Sources and Their Stability
34.3 Thermal Pulses of a Shell Source
34.4 The Core-Mass-Luminosity Relation for Large Core Masses
34.5 Nucleosynthesis on the AGB
34.6 Mass Loss on the AGB
34.7 A Sample AGB Evolution
34.8 Super-AGB Stars
34.9 Post-AGB Evolution
35 Later Phases of Core Evolution
35.1 Nuclear Cycles
35.2 Evolution of the Central Region
36 Final Explosions and Collapse
36.1 The Evolution of the CO-Core
36.2 Carbon Ignition in Degenerate Cores
36.2.1 The Carbon Flash
36.2.2 Nuclear Statistical Equilibrium
36.2.3 Hydrostatic and Convective Adjustment
36.2.4 Combustion Fronts
36.2.5 Carbon Burning in Accreting White Dwarfs
36.3 Collapse of Cores of Massive Stars
36.3.1 Simple Collapse Solutions
36.3.2 The Reflection of the Infall
36.3.3 Effects of Neutrinos
36.3.4 Electron-Capture Supernovae
36.3.5 Pair-Creation Instability
36.4 The Supernova-Gamma-Ray-Burst Connection
Part VIII Compact Objects
37 White Dwarfs 
37.1 Chandrasekhar’s Theory
37.2 The Corrected Mechanical Structure
37.2.1 Crystallization
37.2.2 Pycnonuclear Reactions
37.2.3 Inverse ˇ Decays
37.2.4 Nuclear Equilibrium
37.3 Thermal Properties and Evolution of White Dwarfs
38 Neutron Stars 
38.1 Cold Matter Beyond Neutron Drip
38.2 Models of Neutron Stars
39 Black Holes
Part IX Pulsating Stars
40 Adiabatic Spherical Pulsations
40.1 The Eigenvalue Problem
40.2 The Homogeneous Sphere
40.3 Pulsating Polytropes
41 Non-adiabatic Spherical Pulsations 
41.1 Vibrational Instability of the Piston Model
41.2 The Quasi-adiabatic Approximation
41.3 The Energy Integral
41.3.1 The Mechanism
41.3.2 The ” Mechanism
41.4 Stars Driven by the Mechanism: The Instability Strip
41.5 Stars Driven by the ” Mechanism
42 Non-radial Stellar Oscillations 
42.1 Perturbations of the Equilibrium Model
42.2 Normal Modes and Dimensionless Variables
42.3 The Eigenspectra
42.4 Stars Showing Non-radial Oscillations
Part X Stellar Rotation
43 The Mechanics of Rotating Stellar Models
43.1 Uniformly Rotating Liquid Bodies
43.2 The Roche Model
43.3 Slowly Rotating Polytropes
44 The Thermodynamics of Rotating Stellar Models 
44.1 Conservative Rotation
44.2 Von Zeipel’s Theorem
44.3 Meridional Circulation
44.4 The Non-conservative Case
44.5 The Eddington–Sweet Timescale
44.6 Meridional Circulation in Inhomogeneous Stars
45 The Angular-Velocity Distribution in Stars
45.1 Viscosity
45.2 Dynamical Stability
45.3 Secular Stability

Authors: Rudolf Kippenhahn, Alfred Weigert, Achim Weiss