Astrofísica para Todos

This book introduces particle physics, astrophysics and cosmology. Starting from an experimental perspective, it provides a unified view of these fields that reflects the very rapid advances being made. This new edition has a number of improvements and has been updated to include material on the Higgs particle and to describe the recently discovered gravitational waves. Astroparticle and particle physics share a common problem: we still don’t have a description of the main ingredients of the Universe from the point of view of its energy budget. Addressing these fascinating issues, and offering a balanced introduction to particle and astroparticle physics that requires only a basic understanding of quantum and classical physics, this book is a valuable resource, particularly for advanced undergraduate students and for those embarking on graduate courses. It includes exercises that offer readers practical insights. It can be used equally well as a self-study book, a reference and a textbook.

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Summary

1 Understanding the Universe: Cosmology, Astrophysics, Particles, and Their Interactions
1.1 Particle and Astroparticle Physics
1.2 Particles and Fields
1.3 The Particles of Everyday Life
1.4 The Modern View of Interactions: Quantum Fields and Feynman Diagrams
1.5 A Quick Look at the Universe
1.6 Cosmic Rays
1.7 Multimessenger Astrophysics
2 Basics of Particle Physics 
2.1 The Atom
2.2 The Rutherford Experiment
2.3 Inside the Nuclei: b Decay and the Neutrino
2.4 A Look into the Quantum World: Schrödinger’s Equation
2.4.1 Properties of Schrödinger’s Equation and of its Solutions
2.4.2 Uncertainty and the Scale of Measurements
2.5 The Description of Scattering: Cross Section and Interaction Length
2.5.1 Total Cross Section
2.5.2 Differential Cross Sections
2.5.3 Cross Sections at Colliders
2.5.4 Partial Cross Sections
2.5.5 Interaction Length
2.6 Description of Decay: Width and Lifetime
2.7 Fermi Golden Rule and Rutherford Scattering
2.7.1 Transition Amplitude
2.7.2 Flux

2.7.3 Density of States
2.7.4 Rutherford Cross Section
2.8 Particle Scattering in Static Fields
2.8.1 Extended Charge Distributions (Nonrelativistic)
2.8.2 Finite Range Interactions
2.8.3 Electron Scattering
2.9 Special Relativity
2.9.1 Lorentz Transformations
2.9.2 Space–Time Interval
2.9.3 Velocity Four-Vector
2.9.4 Energy and Momentum
2.9.5 Examples of Relativistic Dynamics
2.9.6 Mandelstam Variables
2.9.7 Lorentz Invariant Fermi Rule
2.9.8 The Electromagnetic Tensor and the Covariant Formulation of Electromagnetism
2.10 Natural Units
3 Cosmic Rays and the Development of Particle Physics 
3.1 The Puzzle of Atmospheric Ionization and the Discovery of Cosmic Rays
3.1.1 Underwater Experiments and Experiments Carried Out at Altitude
3.1.2 The Nature of Cosmic Rays
3.2 Cosmic Rays and the Beginning of Particle Physics
3.2.1 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics and Antimatter: From the Schrödinger Equation to the Klein–Gordon and Dirac Equations
3.2.2 The Discovery of Antimatter
3.2.3 Cosmic Rays and the Progress of Particle Physics
3.2.4 The l Lepton and the p Mesons
3.2.5 Strange Particles
3.2.6 Mountain-Top Laboratories
3.3 Particle Hunters Become Farmers
3.4 The Recent Years
4 Particle Detection 
4.1 Interaction of Particles with Matter
4.1.1 Charged Particle Interactions
4.1.2 Range
4.1.3 Multiple Scattering
4.1.4 Photon Interactions
4.1.5 Nuclear (Hadronic) Interactions
4.1.6 Interaction of Neutrinos

4.1.7 Electromagnetic Showers
4.1.8 Hadronic Showers
4.2 Particle Detectors
4.2.1 Track Detectors
4.2.2 Photosensors
4.2.3 Cherenkov Detectors
4.2.4 Transition Radiation Detectors
4.2.5 Calorimeters
4.3 High-Energy Particles
4.3.1 Artificial Accelerators
4.3.2 Cosmic Rays as Very-High-Energy Beams
4.4 Detector Systems and Experiments at Accelerators
4.4.1 Examples of Detectors for Fixed-Target Experiments
4.4.2 Examples of Detectors for Colliders
4.5 Cosmic-Ray Detectors
4.5.1 Interaction of Cosmic Rays with the Atmosphere: Extensive Air Showers
4.5.2 Detectors of Charged Cosmic Rays
4.5.3 Detection of Hard Photons
4.5.4 Neutrino Detection
4.6 Detection of Gravitational Waves
5 Particles and Symmetries
5.1 A Zoo of Particles
5.2 Symmetries and Conservation Laws: The Noether Theorem
5.3 Symmetries and Groups
5.3.1 A Quantum Mechanical View of the Noether’s
Theorem
5.3.2 Some Fundamental Symmetries in Quantum
Mechanics
5.3.3 Unitary Groups and Special Unitary Groups
5.3.4 SU(2)
5.3.5 SU(3)
5.3.6 Discrete Symmetries: Parity, Charge Conjugation, and Time Reversal
5.3.7 Isospin
5.3.8 The Eightfold Way
5.4 The Quark Model
5.4.1 SU(3)flavor
5.4.2 Color
5.4.3 Excited States (Nonzero Angular Momenta Between Quarks)

5.4.4 The Charm Quark
5.4.5 Beauty and Top
5.4.6 Exotic Hadrons
5.4.7 Quark Families
5.5 Quarks and Partons
5.5.1 Elastic Scattering
5.5.2 Inelastic Scattering Kinematics
5.5.3 Deep Inelastic Scattering
5.5.4 The Quark–Parton Model
5.5.5 The Number of Quark Colors
5.6 Leptons
5.6.1 The Discovery of the ¿ Lepton
5.6.2 Three Neutrinos
5.7 The Particle Data Group and the Particle Data Book
5.7.1 PDG: Estimates of Physical Quantities
5.7.2 Averaging Procedures by the PDG
6 Interactions and Field Theories
6.1 The Lagrangian Representation of a Dynamical System
6.1.1 The Lagrangian and the Noether Theorem
6.1.2 Lagrangians and Fields; Lagrangian Density
6.1.3 Lagrangian Density and Mass
6.2 Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)
6.2.1 Electrodynamics
6.2.2 Minimal Coupling
6.2.3 Gauge Invariance
6.2.4 Dirac Equation Revisited
6.2.5 Klein–Gordon Equation Revisited
6.2.6 The Lagrangian for a Charged Fermion in an Electromagnetic Field: Electromagnetism as a Field Theory
6.2.7 An Introduction to Feynman Diagrams: Electromagnetic Interactions Between Charged Spinless Particles
6.2.8 Electron–Muon Elastic Scattering (el ! el)
6.2.9 Feynman Diagram Rules for QED
6.2.10 Muon Pair Production from ee þ Annihilation
(ee þ ! ll þ )
6.2.11 Bhabha Scattering ee þ ! ee þ
6.2.12 Renormalization and Vacuum Polarization
6.3 Weak Interactions
6.3.1 The Fermi Model of Weak Interactions
6.3.2 Parity Violation

6.3.3 V-A Theory
6.3.4 “Left” and “Right” Chiral Particle States
6.3.5 Intermediate Vector Bosons
6.3.6 The Cabibbo Angle and the GIM Mechanism
6.3.7 Extension to Three Quark Families: The CKM Matrix
6.3.8 C P Violation
6.3.9 Matter–Antimatter Asymmetry
6.4 Strong Interactions and QCD
6.4.1 Yang–Mills Theories
6.4.2 The Lagrangian of QCD
6.4.3 Vertices in QCD; Color Factors
6.4.4 The Strong Coupling
6.4.5 Asymptotic Freedom and Confinement
6.4.6 Hadronization; Final States from Hadronic Interactions
6.4.7 Hadronic Cross Section
7 The Higgs Mechanism and the Standard Model of Particle Physics 
7.1 The Higgs Mechanism and the Origin of Mass
7.1.1 Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking
7.1.2 An Example from Classical Mechanics
7.1.3 Application to Field Theory: Massless Fields Acquire Mass
7.1.4 From SSB to the Higgs Mechanism: Gauge Symmetries and the Mass of Gauge Bosons
7.2 Electroweak Unification
7.2.1 The Formalism of the Electroweak Theory
7.2.2 The Higgs Mechanism in the Electroweak Theory and the Mass of the Electroweak Bosons
7.2.3 The Fermion Masses
7.2.4 Interactions Between Fermions and Gauge Bosons
7.2.5 Self-interactions of Gauge Bosons
7.2.6 Feynman Diagram Rules for the Electroweak Interaction
7.3 The Lagrangian of the Standard Model
7.3.1 The Higgs Particle in the Standard Model
7.3.2 Standard Model Parameters
7.3.3 Accidental Symmetries
7.4 Observables in the Standard Model
7.5 Experimental Tests of the Standard Model at Accelerators
7.5.1 Data Versus Experiments: LEP (and the Tevatron)

7.5.2 LHC and the Discovery of the Higgs Boson
7.6 Beyond the Minimal SM of Particle Physics; Unification of Forces
7.6.1 Grand Unified Theories
7.6.2 Supersymmetry
7.6.3 Strings and Extra Dimensions; Superstrings
7.6.4 Compositeness
8 The Standard Model of Cosmology and the Dark Universe
8.1 Experimental Cosmology
8.1.1 The Universe Is Expanding
8.1.2 Expansion Is Accelerating
8.1.3 Cosmic Microwave Background
8.1.4 Primordial Nucleosynthesis
8.1.5 Astrophysical Evidence for Dark Matter
8.1.6 Age of the Universe: A First Estimate
8.2 General Relativity
8.2.1 Equivalence Principle
8.2.2 Light and Time in a Gravitational Field
8.2.3 Flat and Curved Spaces
8.2.4 Einstein’s Equations
8.2.5 The Friedmann–Lemaitre–Robertson–Walker Model (Friedmann Equations)
8.2.6 Critical Density of the Universe; Normalized Densities
8.2.7 Age of the Universe from the Friedmann Equations and Evolution Scenarios
8.2.8 Black Holes
8.2.9 Gravitational Waves
8.3 Past, Present, and Future of the Universe
8.3.1 Early Universe
8.3.2 Inflation and Large-Scale Structures
8.4 The KCDM Model
8.4.1 Dark Matter Decoupling and the “WIMP Miracle”
8.5 What Is Dark Matter Made of, and How Can It Be Found?
8.5.1 WISPs: Neutrinos, Axions and ALPs
8.5.2 WIMPs
8.5.3 Other Nonbaryonic Candidates

9 The Properties of Neutrinos
9.1 Sources and Detectors; Evidence of the Transmutation of the Neutrino Flavor
9.1.1 Solar Neutrinos, and the Solar Neutrino Problem
9.1.2 Neutrino Oscillation in a Two-Flavor System
9.1.3 Long-Baseline Reactor Experiments
9.1.4 Estimation of ”e ! ”l Oscillation Parameters
9.1.5 Atmospheric Neutrinos and the ”l ! ”¿ Oscillation
9.1.6 Phenomenology of Neutrino Oscillations: Extension to Three Families
9.1.7 Short-Baseline Reactor Experiments, and the Determination of h13
9.1.8 Accelerator Neutrino Beams
9.1.9 Explicit Appearance Experiment
9.1.10 A Gift from Nature: Geo-Neutrinos
9.2 Neutrino Oscillation Parameters
9.3 Neutrino Masses
9.3.1 The Constraints from Cosmological and Astrophysical Data
9.3.2 Direct Measurements of the Electron Neutrino Mass: Beta Decays
9.3.3 Direct Measurements of the Muon- and Tau-Neutrino Masses
9.3.4 Incorporating Neutrino Masses in the Theory
9.3.5 Majorana Neutrinos and the Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay
9.3.6 Present Mass Limits and Prospects
10 Messengers from the High-Energy Universe 
10.1 How Are High-Energy Cosmic Rays Produced?
10.1.1 Acceleration of Charged Cosmic Rays: The Fermi Mechanism
10.1.2 Production of High-Energy Gamma Rays and Neutrinos
10.1.3 Top-Down Mechanisms; Possible Origin from Dark Matter Particles
10.2 Possible Acceleration Sites and Sources
10.2.1 Stellar Endproducts as Acceleration Sites
10.2.2 Other Galactic Sources
10.2.3 Extragalactic Acceleration Sites: Active Galactic Nuclei and Other Galaxies
10.2.4 Extragalactic Acceleration Sites: Gamma Ray Bursts

10.2.5 Gamma Rays and the Origin of Cosmic Rays: The Roles of SNRs and AGN
10.2.6 Sources of Neutrinos
10.2.7 Sources of Gravitational Waves
10.3 The Propagation
10.3.1 Magnetic Fields in the Universe
10.3.2 Photon Background
10.3.3 Propagation of Charged Cosmic Rays
10.3.4 Propagation of Photons
10.3.5 Propagation of Neutrinos
10.3.6 Propagation of Gravitational Waves
10.4 More Experimental Results
10.4.1 Charged Cosmic Rays: Composition, Extreme Energies, Correlation with Sources
10.4.2 Photons: Different Source Types, Transients, Fundamental Physics
10.4.3 Astrophysical Neutrinos
10.4.4 Gravitational Radiation
10.5 Future Experiments and Open Questions
10.5.1 Charged Cosmic Rays
10.5.2 Gamma Rays
10.5.3 The PeV Region
10.5.4 High Energy Neutrinos
10.5.5 Gravitational Waves
10.5.6 Multi-messenger Astrophysics
11 Astrobiology and the Relation of Fundamental Physics to Life
11.1 What Is Life?
11.1.1 Schrödinger’s Definition of Life
11.1.2 The Recipe of Life
11.1.3 Life in Extreme Environments
11.1.4 The Kickoff
11.2 Life in the Solar System, Outside Earth
11.2.1 Planets of the Solar System
11.2.2 Satellites of Giant Planets
11.3 Life Outside the Solar System, and the Search for Alien Civilizations
11.3.1 The “Drake Equation”
11.3.2 The Search for Extrasolar Habitable Planets
11.3.3 The Fermi Paradox

11.3.4 Searching for Biosignatures
11.3.5 Looking for Technological Civilizations: Listening to Messages from Space
11.3.6 Sending Messages to the Universe
11.4 Conclusions

Author: Alessandro De Angelis, Mário Pimenta